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Animal Welfare in the Biblical Narrative and Old Testament

The Old Testament presents a complex view of animal welfare, reflecting both the practical roles animals played in ancient Israelite society and theological perspectives on their place in creation. Animals were integral to daily life, serving as possessions, food sources, and for labor [1, 2, 5, 7].

Sheep, for instance, were a significant part of the economy, used for sacrificial offerings, food, clothing (wool), and even as tribute [1]. Cattle were also abundant, used for plowing, carrying burdens, and as a primary source of meat and sacrifice [5]. Donkeys and camels were common beasts of burden [2, 7]. Dogs were utilized for guarding homes and flocks, though semi-wild dogs were also known to scavenge in cities [3, 4].

The biblical narrative often uses animal imagery to convey theological truths. God is frequently depicted as a shepherd caring for his flock, Israel [11, 13]. This metaphor emphasizes God's protective and nurturing relationship with his people [11, 16]. Similarly, human leaders, particularly kings, were expected to shepherd their people, a responsibility that many failed to uphold [10, 16]. Ezekiel 34, for example, condemns the "shepherds" (kings of Judah) who neglected their flock (the people) and promises that God will raise up "one shepherd," his servant David, to feed them [6, 10, 12]. This messianic prophecy is later understood to be fulfilled in Christ, the Good Shepherd [11, 16].

While animals were not considered sacred in the same way as in some ancient Near Eastern cultures [15], the Old Testament does anticipate a future state of harmony between humans and animals. Isaiah 11:6 describes a time when "the wolf will live with the lamb, and the leopard will lie down with the young goat," and a child will lead them [8]. This imagery suggests a restoration of the paradisiacal state of Eden, where the natural order of predation is overcome [9, 14]. Some interpretations view these animal descriptions as symbolic of human character types, while others understand them as a literal change in the animal kingdom [9, 14]. This vision underscores a hope for universal peace that extends beyond humanity to the created order itself.

Sources

  1. Smith's Bible Dictionary “Smith's Bible Dictionary: Sheep — Sheep were an important part of the possessions of the ancient Hebrews and of eastern nations generally. The first mention of sheep occurs in (Genesis 4:2) They were used in the sacrificial offering, as, both the adult animal, (Exodus 20:24) and the lamb. See (Exodus 29:28; Leviticus 9:3; 12:6) Sheep and lambs formed an important article of food. (1 Samuel 25:18) The wool was used as clothing. (Leviticus 13:47) "Rams skins dyed red" were used as a covering for the tabernacle. (Exodus 25:5) Sheep and lambs were sometimes paid as tribute. (2 Kings 3:4) It is ver”
  2. Easton's Bible Dictionary “Easton's Bible Dictionary: Beast — This word is used of flocks or herds of grazing animals (Ex. 22:5; Num. 20:4, 8, 11; Ps. 78:48); of beasts of burden (Gen. 45:17); of eatable beasts (Prov. 9:2); and of swift beasts or dromedaries (Isa. 60:6). In the New Testament it is used of a domestic animal as property (Rev. 18:13); as used for food (1 Cor. 15:39), for service (Luke 10:34; Acts 23:24), and for sacrifice (Acts 7:42). When used in contradistinction to man (Ps. 36:6), it denotes a brute creature generally, and when in contradistinction to creeping things (Lev. 11:2-7; 27:26), a four-footed ”
  3. Easton's Bible Dictionary “Easton's Bible Dictionary: Dog — Frequently mentioned both in the Old and New Testaments. Dogs were used by the Hebrews as a watch for their houses (Isa. 56:10), and for guarding their flocks (Job 30:1). There were also then as now troops of semi-wild dogs that wandered about devouring dead bodies and the offal of the streets (1 Kings 14:11; 16:4; 21:19, 23; 22:38; Ps. 59:6, 14). As the dog was an unclean animal, the terms "dog," "dog's head," "dead dog," were used as terms of reproach or of humiliation (1 Sam. 24:14; 2 Sam. 3:8; 9:8; 16:9). Paul calls false apostles "dogs" (Phil. 3:2). Those ”
  4. Smith's Bible Dictionary “Smith's Bible Dictionary: Dog — an animal frequently mentioned in Scripture. It was used by the hebrews as a watch for their houses, (Isaiah 56:10) and for guarding their flocks. (Job 30:1) Then also, as now troops of hungry and semi-wild dogs used to wander about the fields and the streets of the cities, devouring dead bodies and other offal, (1 Kings 14:11; 21:19,23; 22:38; Psalms 59:6) and thus became so savage and fierce and such objects of dislike that fierce and cruel enemies are poetically styled dogs in (Psalms 22:16,20) moreover the dog being an unclean animal, (Isaiah 66:3) the epith”
  5. Easton's Bible Dictionary “Easton's Bible Dictionary: Cattle — Abounded in the Holy Land. To the rearing and management of them the inhabitants chiefly devoted themselves (Deut. 8:13; 12:21; 1 Sam. 11:5; 12:3; Ps. 144:14; Jer. 3:24). They may be classified as, (1.) Neat cattle. Many hundreds of these were yearly consumed in sacrifices or used for food. The finest herds were found in Bashan, beyond Jordan (Num. 32:4). Large herds also pastured on the wide fertile plains of Sharon. They were yoked to the plough (1 Kings 19:19), and were employed for carrying burdens (1 Chr. 12:40). They were driven with a pointed rod (Jud”
  6. Ezekiel “I will set up one shepherd over them, and he shall feed them, even my servant David; he shall feed them, and he shall be their shepherd. -- Ezekiel 34:23”
  7. Genesis “He dealt well with Abram for her sake. He had sheep, cattle, male donkeys, male servants, female servants, female donkeys, and camels. -- Genesis 12:16”
  8. Isaiah “The wolf will live with the lamb, and the leopard will lie down with the young goat; The calf, the young lion, and the fattened calf together; and a little child will lead them. -- Isaiah 11:6”
  9. Isaiah (Presbyterian) “Jamieson, Fausset & Brown on Isaiah 11:6: wolf . . . lamb--Each animal is coupled with that one which is its natural prey. A fit state of things under the "Prince of Peace" (Isa 65:25; Eze 34:25; Hos 2:18). These may be figures for men of corresponding animal-like characters (Eze 22:27; Eze 38:13; Jer 5:6; Jer 13:23; Mat 7:15; Luk 10:3). Still a literal change in the relations of animals to man and each other, restoring the state in Eden, is a more likely interpretation. Compare Gen 2:19-20, with Psa 8:6-8, which describes the restoration to man, in the person of "the Son of man," of the lost ”
  10. Ezekiel (Protestant academic) “Tyndale House on Ezekiel 34:1: 34:1–37:28 These chapters show us the blessings that would flow from the Lord’s return to his people. He would be their shepherd and provide them with better leadership (ch 34); he would restore the fruitfulness of the land and thus vindicate his own honor (chs 35–36); he would restore his people to life and unity (ch 37). 34:1-24 This chapter contains declarations of judgment and salvation. There would be judgment on the shepherds (the former kings of Judah) because they failed to care for their flocks (the people of Judah). The Lord would also judge the fat she”
  11. John (Protestant academic) “Tyndale House on John 10:11: 10:11-14 I am: See study note on 6:35. The good shepherd leads his sheep, finds food and water, and locates paths in the wilderness (see Ps 23). The good shepherd stands between his sheep and danger (John 10:11) and fights to protect them. The Old Testament describes God as Israel’s shepherd (Pss 23; 80:1; Isa 40:10-11). The leaders of God’s people should shepherd their flock as God does (Ezek 34:23). However, the leaders of Israel in Jesus’ time were bad shepherds. 10:11-13 Small villages often created communal flocks and employed a hired hand to tend the sheep. H”
  12. Ezek (Protestant academic) “Tyndale House on Ezek 34:1: 34:1–37:28 These chapters show us the blessings that would flow from the Lord’s return to his people. He would be their shepherd and provide them with better leadership (ch 34); he would restore the fruitfulness of the land and thus vindicate his own honor (chs 35–36); he would restore his people to life and unity (ch 37). 34:1-24 This chapter contains declarations of judgment and salvation. There would be judgment on the shepherds (the former kings of Judah) because they failed to care for their flocks (the people of Judah). The Lord would also judge the fat sheep,”
  13. Isaiah (Protestant academic) “Tyndale House on Isaiah 40:11: 40:11 Isaiah used the familiar biblical metaphor of a shepherd to speak of God’s care for his people (see also 49:10; Ps 23:1; Jer 3:15; 23:4; Ezek 34:11-17; Matt 2:6; John 10:1-18).”
  14. Isaiah (Baptist/Reformed) “John Gill on Isaiah 11:6: And the wolf also shall dwell with the lamb,.... This, and the three following verses Isa 11:7, describe the peaceableness of the Messiah's kingdom; and which the Targum introduces in this manner, "in the days of the Messiah of Israel, peace shall be multiplied in the earth.'' The wild and tame creatures shall agree together, and the former shall become the latter; which is not to be understood literally of the savage creatures, as if they should lose their nature, and be restored, as it is said, to their paradisiacal estate, which is supposed to be the time of th”
  15. Psalms (Protestant academic) “Tyndale House on Psalms 8:7: 8:7-8 Wild animals, including birds and fish, remind readers of God’s creation of the animal world in Gen 1. Contrary to beliefs among Israel’s neighbors in the ancient Near East, animals are not sacred.”
  16. 1 Kings (Protestant academic) “Tyndale House on 1 Kings 22:17: 22:17 Like God himself (Ps 23; Isa 40:10-11), Israel’s kings and leaders were charged with care of the people much as a shepherd cares for his sheep (Num 27:16-17; Ezek 34:2, 11-16). The motif of the shepherd and the sheep, applied to the coming Messiah (Ezek 34:23-24), was fulfilled in Christ the Good Shepherd (John 10:1-11). Although he laid down his life for the sheep (John 10:14-18; 1 Pet 2:24-25), he still lives (Heb 13:20) and will come again for them (1 Pet 5:4).”
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