Biblical Cosmology and Scientific Theories Compared
Biblical cosmology, while not a scientific treatise, presents a consistent understanding of the universe as a created order under God's sovereignty, often reflecting the phenomenological observations and conceptual frameworks of the ancient Near East. The Bible frequently refers to celestial bodies and natural phenomena, emphasizing God as their creator and controller, in contrast to the deification of such elements in surrounding cultures [3].
The ancient Hebrews were keen observers of the night sky, distinguishing and naming constellations such as the Pleiades, Orion, Arcturus (the Great Bear), and Draco (the crooked serpent), as mentioned in the Book of Job, which is considered one of the oldest books of the Bible [1]. Other celestial references include the "morning star" and the "host of heaven" [1]. These observations are not presented as scientific explanations but as evidence of God's power and wisdom. For example, Amos 5:8 highlights God's creation of the Pleiades and Orion, asserting His control over what other ancient peoples regarded as deities [3]. Similarly, the process of evaporation and condensation, though not scientifically understood by the ancients, was attributed to the Lord's knowledge and control [3].
The creation account in Genesis describes a "firmament" separating waters above from waters below [6]. This firmament was conceived by the Hebrews as something firm and expanded, perhaps like a crystal or sapphire roof [5]. John Calvin, in his commentary on Genesis, acknowledges the astronomical understanding of the moon as an opaque body, yet he also describes it as fiery and luminous, borrowing light from the sun, and calls it a "lesser light" in comparison to the sun's "infinite splendor" [2]. This demonstrates an early attempt to reconcile biblical descriptions with observable phenomena, even if the scientific understanding of the time was limited.
The Bible also speaks of a "new heaven and a new earth" (Revelation 21:1), a concept that Adam Clarke notes was believed by ancient Jews to signify a renewal of creation after seven thousand years, based on passages like Isaiah 65:17 [4]. This eschatological vision points to a future transformation of the cosmos rather than a detailed scientific model of its current state.
The distinction between the "glory" of the sun, moon, and stars is noted in 1 Corinthians 15:38, with the sun possessing the greatest glory, the moon a lesser glory (receiving light from the sun), and the stars having the least glory from an earthly perspective [7]. This reflects a hierarchical understanding of celestial bodies based on their apparent brightness and influence. Furthermore, the apostle Paul addresses the existence of "gods many, and lords many" in heaven and on earth, referring to various celestial bodies and natural elements that were deified in pagan cultures, but asserts their ultimate nothingness compared to the one true God [8].
Biblical cosmology, therefore, is primarily theological, emphasizing God's role as creator and sustainer of the universe, rather than offering a scientific blueprint. It uses the language and understanding of its time to convey profound truths about divine power and human dependence on God.
Sources
- Easton's Bible Dictionary “Easton's Bible Dictionary: Astronomy — The Hebrews were devout students of the wonders of the starry firmanent (Amos 5:8; Ps. 19). In the Book of Job, which is the oldest book of the Bible in all probability, the constellations are distinguished and named. Mention is made of the "morning star" (Rev. 2:28; comp. Isa. 14:12), the "seven stars" and "Pleiades," "Orion," "Arcturus," the "Great Bear" (Amos 5:8; Job 9:9; 38:31), "the crooked serpent," Draco (Job 26:13), the Dioscuri, or Gemini, "Castor and Pollux" (Acts 28:11). The stars were called "the host of heaven" (Isa. 40:26; Jer. 33:22). The ”
- CCEL (Reformed) “Calvin, Commentary on Genesis, Vol. 1 (Gen 1-23), section 5.23: light to us. That it is, as the astronomers assert, an opaque body, I allow to be true, while I deny it to be a dark body. For, first, since it is placed above the element of fire, it must of necessity be a fiery body. Hence it follows, that it is also luminous; but seeing that it has not light sufficient to penetrate to us, it borrows what is wanting from the sun. He calls it a lesser light by comparison; because the portion of light which it emits to us is small compared with the infinite splendor of the sun. 72 72 The reader wi”
- Amos (Protestant academic) “Tyndale House on Amos 5:8: 5:8-9 Amos quotes a second hymn fragment (see 4:13; 9:5-6). Once again, the prophet emphasizes the contrast between the cosmic God and the local gods. • Stars, celestial bodies, and constellations such as Pleiades and Orion were regarded as deities in the ancient world. Not so, says Amos; the Lord made them and placed them in the sky. • water: The ancients had observed a process that they did not understand (evaporation and condensation). However, the Lord understands and controls natural processes that seem mysterious to humans.”
- Revelation (Methodist/Wesleyan) “Adam Clarke on Revelation 21:1: A new heaven and a new earth - See the notes on Pe2 3:13 : The ancient Jews believed that God would renew the heavens and the earth at the end of seven thousand years. The general supposition they founded on Isa 65:17. There was no more sea - The sea no more appeared than did the first heaven and earth. All was made new; and probably the new sea occupied a different position and was differently distributed, from that of the old sea. However, with respect to these subjects as they stand in this most figurative book, I must express myself in the words of Calmet: V”
- CCEL (Reformed) “Calvin, Commentary on Genesis, Vol. 1 (Gen 1-23), section 5.44: the half of a hollow sphere over the earth.” To the Hebrews, as Gesenius observes, it presented a crystal or sapphire-like appearance. Hence it was thought to be something firm as well as expanded — a roof of crystal or of sapphire. The reader may also refer to the note of Johannes Clericus, in his commentary on Genesis, who retains the word firmament, and argues at length in vindication of the term. — Ed 60 Astrologia . This word includes, but is not necessarily confined to that empirical and presumptuous science, (falsely so-cal”
- Genesis (Methodist/Wesleyan) “Adam Clarke on Genesis 1 (introduction): First day's work - Creation of the heavens and the earth, Gen 1:1, Gen 1:2. Of the light and its separation from the darkness, Gen 1:3-5. Second day's work - The creation of the firmament, and the separation of the waters above the firmament from those below it, Gen 1:6-8. Third day's work - The waters are separated from the earth and formed into seas, etc., Gen 1:9, Gen 1:10. The earth rendered fruitful, and clothed with trees, herbs, grass, etc., Gen 1:11-13. Fourth day's work - Creation of the celestial luminaries intended for the measurement of time”
- 1 Corinthians (Baptist/Reformed) “John Gill on 1 Corinthians 15:38: There is one glory of the sun,.... Which is the greater light, the fountain of light, and whose glory exceeds that of the other heavenly bodies: and another glory of the moon; which is the lesser light, and receives its light from the sun, and consequently its glory is inferior: and another glory of the stars; which though very bright and sparkling, and are innumerable, have a lesser glory, at least to our appearance, than the sun and moon: the Jews have a notion (u), that "all the stars and the orbs are endued with a soul, and with knowledge, and unders”
- 1 Corinthians (Methodist/Wesleyan) “Adam Clarke on 1 Corinthians 8:5: There be that are called gods - There are many images that are supposed to be representations of divinities: but these divinities are nothing, the figments of mere fancy; and these images have no corresponding realities. Whether in heaven or in earth - As the sun, moon, planets, stars, the ocean, rivers, trees, etc. And thus there are, nominally, gods many, and lords many.”