Biblical Perspective on Contracts and Agreements

In biblical contexts, a contract or agreement is frequently referred to as a "covenant." The Hebrew word berith is consistently translated as "covenant" in the Old Testament and is derived from a root meaning "to cut" ^[1]. This etymology alludes to an ancient practice where contracting parties would cut animals into two parts and pass between them to solemnize an agreement ^{[1, 6]}. The corresponding Greek word in the New Testament is diatheke, which is often rendered "testament" in older translations but also means covenant ^{[1, 6]}.

Biblical covenants served various purposes, including establishing friendship (1 Samuel 18:3), securing assistance in warfare (1 Kings 15:18-19), ensuring mutual protection (Genesis 26:28-29), promoting peace (Joshua 9:15-16), facilitating commerce (1 Kings 5:6-11), and even selling land (Genesis 23:14-16) ^[3]. These agreements typically involved clearly specified conditions (1 Samuel 11:1-2), were often confirmed by an oath (Genesis 21:23, 31), witnessed by others (Genesis 23:17-18), and sometimes written and sealed (Nehemiah 9:38) ^{[3, 4]}. God was frequently called upon to witness these agreements ^[3]. Once confirmed, a covenant was considered unalterable ^{[3, 11]}.

God himself enters into covenants with humanity. For instance, God covenanted with Noah after the flood, promising that such a judgment would not be repeated ^[6]. Other significant divine covenants include those made with Abraham (Genesis 15:7-18), Isaac (Genesis 17:19), Jacob (Genesis 28:13-14), Israel (Exodus 6:4), and David (2 Samuel 23:5) ^[8]. The covenant with David, for example, involved a divine promise of an everlasting kingdom for his seed, a relationship of sonship, and superintendence of the temple ^[2].

The concept of covenant also extends to constitutional agreements within Israelite society. Examples include the agreement between Jehoiada and the people to be the people of Yahweh (2 Kings 11:17), Hezekiah's agreement to reform worship (2 Chronicles 29:10), and Josiah's agreement to obey the book of the covenant (2 Kings 23:3) ^[2]. Marriage is also described as a covenant relationship (Malachi 2:4), divinely instituted for human happiness, procreation, and raising godly offspring ^[5].

The promises of God are central to the biblical understanding of covenants. These promises are contained in the Scriptures (Romans 1:2), made in Christ (Ephesians 3:6), and confirmed by an oath (Psalm 89:3-4) ^[7]. The faithfulness of God ensures these promises are remembered and fulfilled ^[7].

The New Testament introduces a "new covenant" mediated by Christ (Hebrews 8:6, 9:15). This new covenant is contrasted with the old covenant made with the fathers, which Israel broke ^[12]. The new covenant, prophesied in Jeremiah 31:31-33, secures the forgiveness of sins and ensures permanent obedience through the work of grace ^[12]. Christ is the substance, mediator, and messenger of this covenant ^[8]. His blood ratifies it, making it a covenant of peace ^[8]. The author of Hebrews emphasizes that God, in accommodation to human ways of confirming covenants, superadded an oath to His word, providing "two immutable things" to assure believers ^[9]. Christ serves as the surety of this better covenant, ensuring its certainty by taking responsibility for human guilt and sealing it with his blood ^[13].

The structure of some biblical covenants, particularly those between God and Israel, resembles ancient Near Eastern suzerain-vassal treaties. In these treaties, a powerful suzerain king would promise protection to a vassal king in exchange for loyalty, with blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience. In God's covenant with Israel, God is one of the parties, and the blessings and curses are pronounced by Him ^[14]. The breaking of a covenant, as seen in Ezekiel 16:59, meant that God's promise of favor would cease if Israel broke faith ^[10].

Sources

Easton's Bible Dictionary “Easton's Bible Dictionary: Covenant — A contract or agreement between two parties. In the Old Testament the Hebrew word berith is always thus translated. Berith is derived from a root which means "to cut," and hence a covenant is a "cutting," with reference to the cutting or dividing of animals into two parts, and the contracting parties passing between them, in making a covenant (Gen. 15; Jer. 34:18, 19). The corresponding word in the New Testament Greek is diatheke, which is, however, rendered "testament" generally in the Authorized Version. It ought to be rendered, just as the word berith o”
Brown-Driver-Briggs “[BDB H1285] berith (part 4/6) — with David Psa 89:4; 89:29; 89:34; 89:39; 132:12; Jer 33:21 (compare 2 Samuel 7 = 1 Chronicles 17); a divine promise to the seed of David of an everlasting kingdom, the relation of sonship, and the superintendence of the temple (compare Psalms 2..) g. Jehoiada and the people 2Kin 11:17 2Chr 23:3, a constitutional agreement to be the people of Yahweh. h. Hezekiah and the people2Chr 29:10, a constitutional agreement to reform the worship. i. Josiah and the people 2Kin 23:3, a constitutional agreement to obey the book of the covenant. j. Ezra and the people Ezra 10”
Torrey's Topical Textbook “Torrey's Topical Textbook: Covenants — Agreements between two parties -- Ge 26:28; Da 11:6. Designed for Establishing friendship. -- 1Sa 18:3. Procuring assistance in war. -- 1Ki 15:18,19. Mutual protection. -- Ge 26:28,29; 31:50-52. Establishing peace. -- Jos 9:15,16. Promoting commerce. -- 1Ki 5:6-11. Selling land. -- Ge 23:14-16. Conditions of Clearly specified. -- 1Sa 11:1,2. Conformed by oath. -- Ge 21:23,31; 26:31. Witnessed. -- Ge 23:17,18; Ru 4:9-11. Written and sealed. -- Ne 9:38; 10:1. God often called to witness -- Ge 31:50,53. When confirmed, unalterable -- Ga 3:15. Made by passing”
Jeremiah “So I took the deed of the purchase, both that which was sealed, containing the terms and conditions, and that which was open; -- Jeremiah 32:11”
Torrey's Topical Textbook “Torrey's Topical Textbook: Marriage — Divinely instituted -- Ge 2:24. A covenant relationship -- Mal 2:4. Designed for The happiness of man. -- Ge 2:18. Increasing the human population. -- Ge 1:28; 9:1. Raising up godly seed. -- Mal 2:15. Preventing fornication. -- 1Co 7:2. The expectation of the promised seed of the woman an incentive to, in the early age -- Ge 3:15; 4:1. Lawful in all -- 1Co 7:2,28; 1Ti 5:14. Honourable for all -- Heb 13:4. Should be only in the Lord -- 1Co 7:39. Expressed by Joining together. -- Mt 19:6. Making affinity. -- 1Ki 3:1. Taking to wife. -- Ex 2:1. Giving daughte”
Smith's Bible Dictionary “Smith's Bible Dictionary: Covenant — The Heb. berith means primarily "a cutting," with reference to the custom of cutting or dividing animals in two and passing between the parts in ratifying a covenant. (Genesis 15; Jeremiah 34:18,19) In the New Testament the corresponding word is diathece (diatheke), which is frequently translated testament in the Authorized Version. In its biblical meaning two parties the word is used-- + Of a covenant between God and man; e.g. God covenanted with Noah, after the flood, that a like judgment should not be repeated. It is not precisely like a covenant between”
Torrey's Topical Textbook “Torrey's Topical Textbook: Promises of God, The — Contained in the Scriptures -- Ro 1:2. Made in Christ -- Eph 3:6; 2Ti 1:1. Made to Christ. -- Ga 3:16,19. Abraham. -- Ge 12:3,7; Ga 3:16. Isaac. -- Ge 26:3,4. Jacob. -- Ge 28:14. David. -- 2Sa 7:12; Ps 89:3,4,35,36. The Israelites. -- Ro 9:4. The Fathers. -- Ac 13:32; 26:6,7. All who are called of God. -- Ac 2:39. Those who love him. -- Jas 1:12; 2:5. Confirmed by an oath -- Ps 89:3,4; Heb 8:6. Covenant established upon -- Heb 8:6. God is faithful to -- Tit 1:2; Heb 10:23. God remembers -- Ps 105:42; Lu 1:54,55. Are Good. -- 1Ki 8:56. Holy. -- ”
Torrey's Topical Textbook “Torrey's Topical Textbook: Covenant, The — Christ, the substance of -- Isa 42:6; 49:8. Christ, the Mediator of -- Heb 8:6; 9:15; 12:24. Christ, the Messenger of -- Mal 3:1. Made with Abraham. -- Ge 15:7-18; 17:2-14; Lu 1:72-75; Ac 3:25; Ga 3:16. Isaac. -- Ge 17:19,21; 26:3,4. Jacob. -- Ge 28:13,14; 1Ch 16:16,17. Israel. -- Ex 6:4; Ac 3:25. David. -- 2Sa 23:5; Ps 89:3,4. Renewed under the gospel -- Jer 31:31-33; Ro 11:27; Heb 8:8-10,13. Fulfilled in Christ -- Lu 1:68-79. Confirmed in Christ -- Ga 3:17. Ratified by the blood of Christ -- Heb 9:11-14,16-23. Is a covenant of peace -- Isa 54:9,10; ”
Hebrews (Presbyterian) “Jamieson, Fausset & Brown on Hebrews 6:17: Wherein--that is, Which being the case among men, God, in accommodation to their manner of confirming covenants, superadded to His sure word His oath: the "TWO immutable things" (Heb 6:18). willing . . . counsel--Greek, "willing . . . will"; words akin. Expressing the utmost benignity [BENGEL]. more abundantly--than had He not sworn. His word would have been amply enough; but, to make assurance doubly sure, He "interposed with an oath" (so the Greek). Literally, He acted as Mediator, coming between Himself and us; as if He were less, while He swea”
Ezekiel (Presbyterian) “Jamieson, Fausset & Brown on Ezekiel 16:59: the oath--the covenant between God and Israel (Deu 29:12, Deu 29:14). As thou hast despised it, so will I despise thee. No covenant is one-sided; where Israel broke faith, God's promise of favor ceased.”
Galatians (Presbyterian) “Jamieson, Fausset & Brown on Galatians 3:15: I speak after the manner of men--I take an illustration from a merely human transaction of everyday occurrence. but a man's covenant--whose purpose it is far less important to maintain. if it be confirmed--when once it hath been ratified. no man disannulleth--"none setteth aside," not even the author himself, much less any second party. None does so who acts in common equity. Much less would the righteous God do so. The law is here, by personification, regarded as a second person, distinct from, and subsequent to, the promise of God. The promi”
Jeremiah (Presbyterian) “Jamieson, Fausset & Brown on Jeremiah 31:32: Not . . . the covenant that I made with . . . fathers--the Old Testament covenant, as contrasted with our gospel covenant (Heb 8:8-12; Heb 10:16-17, where this prophecy is quoted to prove the abrogation of the law by the gospel), of which the distinguishing features are its securing by an adequate atonement the forgiveness of sins, and by the inworking of effectual grace ensuring permanent obedience. An earnest of this is given partially in the present eclectic or elect Church gathered out of Jews and Gentiles. But the promise here to Israel in the ”
Hebrews (Presbyterian) “Jamieson, Fausset & Brown on Hebrews 7:22: surety--ensuring in His own person the certainty of the covenant to us. This He did by becoming responsible for our guilt, by sealing the covenant with His blood, and by being openly acknowledged as our triumphant Saviour by the Father, who raised Him from the dead. Thus He is at once God's surety for man, and man's surety for God, and so Mediator between God and man (Heb 8:6). better-- Heb 8:6; Heb 13:20, "everlasting." testament--sometimes translated, "covenant." The Greek term implies that it is appointed by God, and comprises the relations and”
Leviticus (Protestant academic) “Tyndale House on Leviticus 26:3: 26:3-39 These blessings and curses resemble a key element of ancient Near Eastern suzerain-vassal treaties. In such treaties, the suzerain king promised to defend the vassal king and his state, while the vassal took an oath of loyalty to his lord. Blessings and curses followed, with the curses generally being more lengthy (contrast 26:3-13 with 26:14-39; cp. Deut 27:15–28:68). Such treaties would call upon the gods as witnesses and enforcers. In God’s covenant with Israel, however, the Lord was one of the parties to the treaty (Israel being the other); since th”

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