Biblical Regulation of Slavery in Ancient Context

The Mosaic Law did not establish slavery but rather regulated an already existing custom, aiming to mitigate its harshness and ensure basic rights for individuals ^{[1, 2]}. The Hebrew and Greek terms often translated as "slave" are more accurately rendered as "servant," "bondman," or "bondservant" ^[1]. The nature of slavery under Mosaic law differs significantly from modern conceptions ^[1].

A Hebrew could enter servitude due to poverty, theft, or paternal authority ^[2]. For instance, a man unable to support his family might sell himself to another Hebrew for maintenance ^[2]. Nehemiah 5:5 illustrates this, describing how some Israelites were forced to bring their children into bondage due to economic hardship ^[3]. However, the Israelites were not considered "true slaves" in the same way as contemporary slaves in other cultures, as they maintained their own homes, family life, and culture, rather than living in their masters' homes ^[6].

The Mosaic Law included specific provisions for Hebrew slaves. Deuteronomy 15:12-18 outlines rules for the manumission of Hebrew slaves, often linked to the seventh year, though not necessarily the sabbatical year ^[9]. The Talmud emphasizes that a Hebrew slave's living conditions must be equal to those of the master, including food and drink, and they cannot be forced to work under unreasonable conditions, based on Deuteronomy 15:16, "Because he fares well with you" ^{[11, 12]}. Furthermore, the law prohibited ruling over fellow Israelites with rigor, as stated in Leviticus 25:46 ^[13].

While the New Testament does not explicitly attack the institution of slavery, it introduces principles that fundamentally alter the nature of social structures ^[5]. For example, Colossians 3:22-24 instructs slaves to obey their earthly masters, but also reminds both slave and free that they serve a higher Master, Christ ^[5]. Early Christian thought, as seen in the counsel to "care not for it" if one is a slave, encouraged contentment in one's existing condition while acknowledging that the spirit of the Gospel is against slavery ^[7]. Thomas Aquinas, reflecting on positive law, argued that slavery, being of positive law, cannot infringe upon natural law, such as the right to marry and procreate ^[4]. Charles Hodge notes that many judicial laws of the Old Testament theocracy, including those concerning slavery, were abolished with the new dispensation ^{[8, 10]}.

Sources

Easton's Bible Dictionary “Easton's Bible Dictionary: Slave — Jer. 2:14 (A.V.), but not there found in the original. In Rev. 18:13 the word "slaves" is the rendering of a Greek word meaning "bodies." The Hebrew and Greek words for slave are usually rendered simply "servant," "bondman," or "bondservant." Slavery as it existed under the Mosaic law has no modern parallel. That law did not originate but only regulated the already existing custom of slavery (Ex. 21:20, 21, 26, 27; Lev. 25:44-46; Josh. 9:6-27). The gospel in its spirit and genius is hostile to slavery in every form, which under its influence is gradually disa”
Smith's Bible Dictionary “Smith's Bible Dictionary: Slave — The institution of slavery was recognized, though not established, by the Mosaic law with a view to mitigate its hardship and to secure to every man his ordinary rights. I. Hebrew slaves.-- + The circumstances under which a Hebrew might be reduced to servitude were-- (1) poverty; (2) the commission of theft; and (3) the exercise of paternal authority. In the first case, a man who had mortgaged his property, and was unable to support his family, might sell himself to another Hebrew, with a view both to obtain maintenance and perchance a surplus sufficient to re”
Nehemiah “Yet now our flesh is as the flesh of our brothers, our children as their children. Behold, we bring into bondage our sons and our daughters to be servants, and some of our daughters have been brought into bondage. Neither is it in our power to help it; for other men have our fields and our vineyards.” -- Nehemiah 5:5”
theology (Catholic (Scholastic)) “Aquinas, Summa Theologica, Supplement (Supplementum), Of the Impediment of the Condition of Slavery, Art. 2: Article: Whether a slave can marry without his master's consent? I answer that, As stated above (Article [1], ad 3), the positive law arises out of the natural law, and consequently slavery, which is of positive law, cannot be prejudicious to those things that are of natural law. Now just as nature seeks the preservation of the individual, so does it seek the preservation of the species by means of procreation; wherefore even as a slave is not so subject to his master as not to be at li”
Colossians (Protestant academic) “Tyndale House on Colossians 3:22: 3:22-24 Slaves have earthly masters whom they must obey. Slavery was central to the life and economy of the ancient world, and the New Testament never attacks the practice as such. However, Christian faith establishes relationships that change the nature of the social structure (see Phlm 1:15-16). • and that the Master you are serving is Christ: All Christians, both slave and free, serve a higher Master, whose will is paramount.”
Sefaria (Jewish (Rationalist)) “Abraham Ibn Ezra on Exodus 13:3: [OUT OF THE HOUSE OF BONDAGE.] This indicates that the Egyptians forced them to work as if they were their slaves. 9 Hence Scripture speaks of the place/house of bondage. However, the Israelites were not true slaves. They were a separate nation. They lived in their own houses, not in the homes of their masters; they had a family life and a culture. I.E. apparently comments thus so that people would not think of the ancient Israelites in the same way that they thought of contemporary slaves, i.e., as mean people. Cf. Aristotle’s Politics , 1:5, “From the hour of”
1 Corinthians (Presbyterian) “Jamieson, Fausset & Brown on 1 Corinthians 7:21: care not for it--Let it not be a trouble to thee that thou art a servant or slave. use it rather--Continue rather in thy state as a servant (Co1 7:20; Gal 3:28; Ti1 6:2). The Greek, "But if even thou mayest be made free, use it," and the context (Co1 7:20, Co1 7:22) favors this view [CHRYSOSTOM, BENGEL, and ALFORD]. This advice (if this translation be right) is not absolute, as the spirit of the Gospel is against slavery. What is advised here is, contentment under one's existing condition (Co1 7:24), though an undesirable one, since in our uni”
CCEL (Reformed (Old Princeton)) “Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology, Vol. 3, section 39: The right of property need not have existed. God might have made all things as common as sun-light or air. Men might have been as angels, neither marrying nor giving in marriage. Under such a constitution there would be no room for a multitude of laws which are now of universal and necessary obligation. 3. A third class of laws have their foundation in certain temporary relations of men, or conditions of society, and are enforced by the authority of God. To this class belong many of the judicial or civil laws of the ancient theocracy; law”
Deuteronomy (Lutheran) “Keil & Delitzsch on Deuteronomy 15:12: These provisions in favour of the poor are followed very naturally by the rules which the Israelites were to be urged to observe with reference to the manumission of Hebrew slaves. It is not the reference to the sabbatical year in the foregoing precepts which forms the introduction to the laws which follow respecting the manumission of Hebrews who had become slaves, but the poverty and want which compelled Hebrew men and women to sell themselves as slaves. The seventh year, in which they were to be set free, is not the same as the sabbatical year, therefo”
CCEL (Reformed (Old Princeton)) “Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology, Vol. 3, section 39: the obligation of any divine law, which He has imposed upon them. (2.) That with regard to the positive laws of the Old Testament, and such judicial enactments as were designed exclusively for the Hebrews living under the theocracy, they were all abolished by the introduction of the new dispensation. We are no longer under obligation to circumcise our children, to keep the Passover, or feast of tabernacles or to go up 270 three times in the year to Jerusalem, or to exact an eye for an eye, or a tooth for a tooth. (3.) With regard to those”
Babylonian Talmud (Jewish (Rabbinic)) “Babylonian Talmud, Kiddushin 165a.29:12: The Gemara clarifies: And can it enter your mind that a Hebrew slave actually works both during the day and at night? But isn’t it already stated: “Because he fares well with you” (Deuteronomy 15:16), which teaches that he must be with you in food and with you in drink? All of the slave’s needs must be fulfilled, and his living conditions must be equal to those of the master himself. If so, he cannot be forced to work under unreasonable conditions. And Rabbi Yitzḥak says in explanation of this halakha : From here it is derived that his master may provid”
Babylonian Talmud (Jewish (Rabbinic)) “Babylonian Talmud, Kiddushin 15a.12: The Gemara clarifies: And can it enter your mind that a Hebrew slave actually works both during the day and at night? But isn’t it already stated: “Because he fares well with you” (Deuteronomy 15:16), which teaches that he must be with you in food and with you in drink? All of the slave’s needs must be fulfilled, and his living conditions must be equal to those of the master himself. If so, he cannot be forced to work under unreasonable conditions. And Rabbi Yitzḥak says in explanation of this halakha : From here it is derived that his master may provide hi”
Babylonian Talmud (Jewish (Rabbinic)) “Babylonian Talmud, Sotah 3b.9: The Gemara asks: And how does Rabbi Akiva derive this halakha ? The Gemara answers: The prohibition against enslaving your brethren is derived from the latter phrase of the verse, where it is explicitly stated: “But over your brethren the children of Israel you shall not rule, one over another, with rigor” (Leviticus 25:46).”

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