Social Etiquette and Dress Codes in Biblical Times

Social etiquette and dress codes in biblical times were influenced by cultural norms, religious practices, and social status. Clothing served not only as protection but also as a marker of identity and occasion.

Dress in biblical times generally consisted of an undergarment or tunic, often bound by a girdle. A person wearing only this tunic might be described as "naked" in certain contexts ^[5]. Those of higher status sometimes wore two tunics, with the outer one referred to as an "upper garment" ^[5]. An over-garment, or "mantle," was also common ^[5]. Materials for clothing included animal skins, as seen with Elijah's mantle, and woven hair or wool ^[9]. Fine linen was associated with purity and priestly garments ^[12]. The prophet Isaiah lists various items of women's apparel, including festal robes, outer tunics, cloaks, money purses, mirrors, linen garments, tiaras, and shawls ^{[2, 6]}. Shoes, often called sandals, were made of various materials, including badger skins for ladies of distinction, and could be highly ornamental ^{[1, 12]}. The act of loosening or bearing another's shoes was considered a degrading office, typically performed by slaves ^[1].

Distinctions in dress between men and women were not always pronounced, though Deuteronomy 22:5 prohibited men from wearing female apparel, particularly ornaments and head-dresses ^[5]. Priests, for example, had specific "holy garments" for their service ^[16]. Ezekiel 44:19 describes how priests were to change out of their ministering garments when leaving the inner court to interact with the people, to avoid sanctifying the people with their sacred attire ^[4]. This highlights the ritual significance of clothing in certain contexts.

Beyond daily wear, specific garments were used for particular purposes. For instance, "clothes of service" could refer to the coverings used for the tabernacle's furniture when the Israelites journeyed, such as the ark, the showbread table, and the golden altar ^{[16, 17]}. These were often made of blue, purple, scarlet, and badger skins ^[16]. Rashi interprets "their clothes" in 2 Samuel 10:4 as referring to robes ^[13].

Social interactions were also governed by established etiquette. Salutations were an ancient practice, exchanged between brethren, between superiors and inferiors, and by passers-by ^[7]. Greetings were common upon entering a house ^[7]. Expressions like "Peace be with thee" were typical ^[7]. However, persons in a hurry might be excused from giving or receiving salutations ^[7], and salutations were sometimes denied to those of bad character ^[7].

Hospitality was a highly valued social custom, commanded in scripture and considered a test of Christian character ^[3]. It was to be extended particularly to strangers, the poor, and even enemies ^[3]. Biblical figures like Abraham, Lot, and Job exemplified hospitality ^[3].

The New Testament also touches on dress and social conduct. John Gill, commenting on 1 Timothy 2:8, suggests that while women should participate in public prayer, they should do so with appropriate dress, implying modesty ^[11]. Similarly, on 1 Peter 3:5, Gill notes that "holy women" in ancient times, such as Sarah, Rebekah, and Rachel, were characterized by an "inward dress and ornament," emphasizing inner virtues over outward adornment ^[14]. The Dead Sea Scrolls, specifically the Community Rule, emphasize a commitment to truth, righteousness, and justice, and a separation from "men of falsehood" ^{[8, 10]}, indicating a strong communal identity and moral code that would have influenced social interactions within the Qumran community.

The act of rending garments was a recognized sign of mourning or distress, as seen in Isaiah 37:1, and was distinct from the time to sew them up again ^[15]. This practice underscores the symbolic role of clothing in expressing deep emotion.

Sources

Torrey's Topical Textbook “Torrey's Topical Textbook: Shoes — Early use of -- Ge 14:23. Called sandals -- Mr 6:9; Ac 12:8. Soles of, sometimes plated with brass or iron -- De 33:25. Bound round the feet with latchets or strings -- Joh 1:27; Ac 12:8. Of ladies of distinction Often made of badgers' skins. -- Eze 16:10. Often highly ornamental. -- Song 7:1. Probably often adorned with tinkling ornaments. -- Isa 3:18. Loosing of, for another a degrading office -- Mr 1:17; Joh 1:27. Bearing, for another a degrading office, only performed by slaves -- Mt 3:11. The Jews Put on, before beginning a journey. -- Ex 12:11. Never wo”
Isaiah “Isaiah 3:22 (NASB) — festal robes, outer tunics, cloaks, money purses,”
Torrey's Topical Textbook “Torrey's Topical Textbook: Hospitality — Commanded -- Ro 12:13; 1Pe 4:9. Required in ministers -- 1Ti 3:2; Tit 1:8. A test of Christian character -- 1Ti 5:10. Specially to be shown to Strangers. -- Heb 13:2. The poor. -- Isa 58:7; Lu 14:13. Enemies. -- 2Ki 6:22,23; Ro 12:20. Encouragement to -- Lu 14:14; Heb 13:2. Exemplified Melchizedek. -- Ge 14:18. Abraham. -- Ge 18:3-8. Lot. -- Ge 19:2,3. Laban. -- Ge 24:31. Jethro. -- Ex 2:20. Manoah. -- Jdj 13:15. Samuel. -- 1Sa 9:22. David. -- 2Sa 6:19. Barzillai. -- 2Sa 19:32. Shunammite. -- 2Ki 4:8. Nehemiah. -- Ne 5:17. Job. -- Job 31:17,32. Zacchaeu”
Ezekiel “When they go out into the outer court, even into the outer court to the people, they shall put off their garments in which they minister, and lay them in the holy rooms; and they shall put on other garments, that they not sanctify the people with their garments. -- Ezekiel 44:19”
Easton's Bible Dictionary “Easton's Bible Dictionary: Apparel — In Old Testament times the distinction between male and female attire was not very marked. The statute forbidding men to wear female apparel (Deut. 22:5) referred especially to ornaments and head-dresses. Both men and women wore (1) an under garment or tunic, which was bound by a girdle. One who had only this tunic on was spoken of as "naked" (1 Sam. 19:24; Job 24:10; Isa. 20:2). Those in high stations sometimes wore two tunics, the outer being called the "upper garment" (1 Sam. 15:27; 18:4; 24:5; Job 1:20). (2.) They wore in common an over-garment ("mantle”
Isaiah “Isaiah 3:23 (BSB) — and their mirrors, linen garments, tiaras, and shawls.”
Torrey's Topical Textbook “Torrey's Topical Textbook: Salutations — Antiquity of -- Ge 18:2; 19:1. Were given By brethren to each other. -- 1Sa 17:22. By inferiors to their superiors. -- Ge 47:7. By superiors to inferiors. -- 1Sa 30:21. By all passers-by. -- 1Sa 10:3,4; Ps 129:8. On entering a house. -- Jdj 18:15; Mt 10:12; Lu 1:40,41,44. Often sent through messengers -- 1Sa 25:5,14; 2Sa 8:10. Often sent by letter -- Ro 16:21-23; 1Co 16:21; Col 4:18; 2Th 3:17. Denied to persons of bad character -- 2Jo 1:10. Persons in haste excused from giving or receiving -- 2Ki 4:29; Lu 10:24. Expressions used as Peace be with thee. -”
Dead Sea Scrolls “Community Rule (Serekh ha-Yahad) (c. 100-75 BCE), section 8: of the men of their Covenant who together have 10. freely pledged themselves to His truth and to walking in the way of His delight. And he shall undertake by the Covenant to separate from all the men of falsehood who walk in 11. the way of wickedness. For they are not reckoned in His Covenant. They have neither inquired nor sought after Him concerning His laws that they might know the hidden things in which they have sinfully erred; 12. and matters revealed they have treated with insolence. Therefore Wrath shall rise up to condemn, a”
Smith's Bible Dictionary “Smith's Bible Dictionary: Dress — This subject includes the following particulars: + Materials; + Color and decoration; + Name, form, and mode of wearing the various articles; + Special usages relating thereto. + Materials .--After the first "apron" of fig leaves, (Genesis 3:7) the skins of animals were used for clothing. (Genesis 3:21) Such was the "mantle" worn by Elijah. Pelisses of sheepskin still form an ordinary article of dress in the East. The art of weaving hear was known to the Hebrews at an early period, (Exodus 25:4; 26:7) and wool was known earlier still. (Genesis 38:12) Their acq”
Dead Sea Scrolls “Community Rule (Serekh ha-Yahad) (c. 100-75 BCE), section 1: THE COMMUNITY RULE Translated by G. Vermes 1QS COL.I . . . Book of the Community Rule, that they may seek 2. God with a whole heart and soul. and do good and right before Him as 3. He commanded by the hand of Moses and all His servants the Prophets; that they may love 4. all that He has chosen and hate all that he has rejected; that they may abstain from all evil and 5. hold fast to all good; that they may practise truth, righteousness, and justice 6. upon earth and no longer stubbornly follow a sinful heart and lustful eyes committi”
1 Timothy (Baptist/Reformed) “John Gill on 1 Timothy 2:8: In like manner also,.... Let the women pray likewise; though they are not to lead in prayer, or be the mouth of the church, which would be indecent, yet they are to join with the church in public prayer; see Act 1:14 and in like manner as the men, with purity of heart and hand, without murmuring and impatience towards God, and without wrath and anger towards others, and in faith, without doubting and distrust: and the apostle proceeds to point out what sort of dress he would have them appear in at the time of prayer, and at any part of public worship; and thus the E”
Ezekiel (Presbyterian) “Jamieson, Fausset & Brown on Ezekiel 16:10: eze 16:10Psa 45:13-14, similarly describes the Church (Israel, the appointed mother of Christendom) adorned as a bride (so Isa 61:10). It is Messiah who provides the wedding garment (Rev 3:18; Rev 19:8). badgers' skin--tahash; others translate, "seal skins." They formed the over-covering of the tabernacle, which was, as it were, the nuptial tent of God and Israel (Exo 26:14), and the material of the shoes worn by the Hebrews on festival days. (See on Exo 25:5). fine linen--used by the priests (Lev 6:10); emblem of purity.”
Sefaria (Jewish (Rabbinic)) “Rashi (Rabbi Shlomo Yitzchaki) on 2 Samuel 10:4: Their clothes. Their robes.”
1 Peter (Baptist/Reformed) “John Gill on 1 Peter 3:5: For after this manner in the old time,.... In ages past, the years of many generations, since the time that God created man upon earth; in the times before the flood, and after it; in the times of the patriarchs, judges, kings, and prophets of Israel, under the Old Testament dispensation. The apostle exhorts and encourages to this inward dress and ornament, from the antiquity of it: for in this way, and after this fashion, the holy women also: who were sanctified by the Spirit of God, and lived holy lives and conversations, such as Sarah, Rebekah, Rachel, Leah, Ruth”
Ecclesiastes (Baptist/Reformed) “John Gill on Ecclesiastes 3:7: A time to rend, and a time to sew,.... To rend garments, in case of blasphemy, and in times of mourning and fasting, and then to sew them up when they are over; see Isa 37:1; This the Jews apply to the rending of the ten tribes from Rehoboam, signified by the rending of Jeroboam's garment, Kg1 11:30; the sewing up or uniting of which is foretold, Eze 37:22. Some interpret it of the rending of the Jewish church state, signified by the rending of the vail, at the death of Christ; and of the constituting the Gospel church state among the Gentiles; a time to keep s”
Exodus (Baptist/Reformed) “John Gill on Exodus 31:10: And the clothes of service,.... Either those the priests ministered in in the time of service, and which they never wore but when in it, and so might with propriety be so called, and what they were the following words explain; or else these were clothes of blue, purple, and scarlet, and coverings of badgers' skins, in which the ark, the shewbread table, the candlestick, and the golden altar, and other instruments of the tabernacle were wrapped, as Aben Ezra observes, when the Israelites journeyed in the wilderness, see Num 4:5. and the holy garments for Aaron the p”
Sefaria (Jewish (Rationalist)) “Abraham Ibn Ezra on Exodus 39:1: PLAITED GARMENTS. 1 Hebrew, bigde serad . According to I.E. the reference is to the garments which were used as covers for the tabernacle’s furniture when Israel journeyed. See I.E. on Ex. 31:10 and the notes thereto. These garments are the ones that are mentioned in the Torah portion Be-Midbar Sinai (in the wilderness of Sinai). 2 Num. 4:5-13. See I.E. on Ex. 31:10. God commanded that the ark be covered with the veil 3 Num. 4:5. as a mark of honor. 4 The veil that separated the Holy and the Holy of Holies was placed over the ark because of the ark’s great sanc”

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