Eternal Soul in Human Beings vs Animals in Scripture
The question of an eternal soul in human beings versus animals involves examining biblical texts and theological interpretations regarding the nature of life, spirit, and post-mortem existence. While the Bible often uses similar language to describe the life principle in both humans and animals, theological traditions generally distinguish between the human soul's capacity for rationality and immortality and the animal soul's more limited nature.
Scripture indicates that both humans and animals possess "breath" or "spirit." Ecclesiastes 3:19 states, "For that which happens to the sons of men happens to animals. Even one thing happens to them. As the one dies, so the other dies. Yes, they have all one breath; and man has no advantage over the animals: for all is vanity" [4]. This passage highlights a shared mortality and a common life force. The term "living soul" (Hebrew: nephesh chayyah) is applied to both animals and Adam in Genesis [6]. However, the creation account distinguishes Adam's formation, where God "breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living soul" (Genesis 2:7), from the creation of animals [9].
Despite shared mortality, some biblical texts hint at a distinction in destiny. Ecclesiastes 3:21 asks, "Who knows if the spirit of man rises upward and the spirit of the animal descends into the earth?" [3]. This verse, while framed as a question, suggests a potential difference in the post-mortem trajectory of human and animal spirits. Psalms 49:12 and 49:20 lament that "man, like the animals, does not go on for ever; he comes to an end like the beasts," which emphasizes the physical mortality shared by both, but does not explicitly deny a spiritual component for humans beyond death [1, 2].
Theological traditions have elaborated on these distinctions. Patristic writers, such as Lactantius, argued for the immortality of the human soul based on its capacity for reflection, discovery, learning, and foresight, suggesting that "the soul of man always moves by itself, and because it is flexible for reflection, subtle for discovery, easy of perception, adapted to learning, and because it retains the past, comprehends the present, foresees the future, and embraces the knowledge of many subjects and arts" [5]. Augustine further clarified that the "spirit of man" refers to our rational faculty, which enables the soul to exercise sense and intelligence, distinguishing humans from "brute animals, since these are unendowed with reason" [7]. Tertullian also affirmed the presence of souls in all living things, including aquatic creatures, noting that this is a general opinion supported by Scripture [11].
Scholastic theology, exemplified by Thomas Aquinas, addressed the nature of the soul in detail. Aquinas rejected the Platonic idea of multiple souls in one body, arguing for a single intellectual soul in humans that encompasses nutritive, sensitive, and rational powers [10]. This intellectual soul is considered the form of the human body and is inherently immortal, unlike the souls of animals, which are intrinsically tied to their physical bodies and perish with them.
Reformed theologians also emphasize the unique nature of the human soul. John Calvin, in his commentary on Genesis, noted that while the term "living soul" applies to animals, it refers to "only the sensitive and animal life, that by which a created being breathes; and thus distinguishes the animal from the vegetative life" [6]. He contrasted this with Adam's creation, where God's direct breath imparted a higher form of life. Charles Hodge, an Old Princeton theologian, discussed the soul's ability to exert human powers, feel human appetites, and influence the body in a way agreeable to human nature, distinguishing it from mere animal vitality [8]. The Jamieson, Fausset & Brown commentary on 1 Corinthians 15:45 explains that Adam "became (was made to become) a living soul," meaning he was "endowed with an animal soul, the living principle of his body," but this is contrasted with the "spiritual body" that believers will receive, implying a transformation beyond mere animal existence [9, 12].
Thus, while both humans and animals share a life principle and mortality, theological consensus, rooted in scriptural distinctions, posits that the human soul possesses a unique rational and immortal quality absent in animals.
Sources
- Psalms “Psalms 49:12 (BBE) — But man, like the animals, does not go on for ever; he comes to an end like the beasts.”
- Psalms “Psalms 49:20 (BBE) — Man, like the animals, does not go on for ever; he comes to an end like the beasts.”
- Ecclesiastes “Ecclesiastes 3:21 (BSB) — Who knows if the spirit of man rises upward and the spirit of the animal descends into the earth?”
- Ecclesiastes “For that which happens to the sons of men happens to animals. Even one thing happens to them. As the one dies, so the other dies. Yes, they have all one breath; and man has no advantage over the animals: for all is vanity. -- Ecclesiastes 3:19”
- Schaff ANF/NPNF (Patristic) “ANF Vol 7: Lactantius, Venantius, Asterius, Victorinus, Dionysius — CHAP. LXX.--THE IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL IS (part 1): CONFIRMED. It may in truth be collected from many arguments that souls are eternal. Plato says that that which always moves by itself, and has no beginning of motion, also has no end; but that the soul of man always moves by itself, and be- cause it is flexible for reflection, subtle for discovery, easy of perception, adapted to learning, and because it retains the past, comprehends the present, foresees the future, and embraces the knowledge of many subjects and arts, that ”
- CCEL (Reformed) “Calvin, Commentary on Genesis, Vol. 1 (Gen 1-23), section 6.14: boast of the excellency of their nature! Concerning other animals, it had before been said, Let the earth produce every living creature; 113 113 “ Omnem animam viventum ,” — “every living soul.” The word is applied here, and frequently in the Holy Scriptures, to describe only the sensitive and animal life, that by which a created being breathes; and thus distinguishes the animal from the vegetative life. — Ed . but, on the other hand, the body of Adam is formed of clay, and destitute of sense; to the end that no one should exult b”
- Schaff ANF/NPNF (Patristic) “NPNF1 Vol 5: Augustine — Anti-Pelagian — CHAP. 37 [XXIII.]--WIDE AND NARROW SENSE OF (part 2): and the spirit--which is the soul's wisdom and sense--is another." In these words you plainly enough indicate what you take the spirit of man to mean; that it is even our rational faculty, whereby the soul exercises sense and intelligence,--not, indeed, the sensation which is felt by the bodily senses, but the operation of that innermost sense from which arises the term sentiment. Owing to this it is, no doubt, that we are placed above brute animals, since these are unendowed with reason. These anima”
- CCEL (Reformed (Old Princeton)) “Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology, Vol. 2, section 84: be united to a human body, in such a manner as to exert the powers of a man, to feel the appetites and sensibilities and passions of a man, as to receive impressions or sensations, whether 427 pleasant or painful, by the means of that body, and is also able to actuate and influence all the animal powers of that body in a way agreeable to human nature.” The above is very far from being a full exposition of the considerations urged by Dr. Watts in support of his theory. It is simply a selection of the more plausible of his arguments present”
- 1 Corinthians (Presbyterian) “Jamieson, Fausset & Brown on 1 Corinthians 15:45: so--in accordance with the distinction just mentioned between the natural or animal-souled body and the spiritual body. it is written-- (Gen 2:7); "Man became (was made to become) a living soul," that is, endowed with an animal soul, the living principle of his body. the last Adam--the LAST Head of humanity, who is to be fully manifested in the last day, which is His day (Joh 6:39). He is so called in Job 19:25; see on Job 19:25 (compare Rom 5:14). In contrast to "the last," Paul calls "man" (Gen 2:7) "the FIRST Adam." quickening--not onl”
- theology (Catholic (Scholastic)) “Aquinas, Summa Theologica, First Part (Prima Pars), Of the Union of Body and Soul, Art. 3: Article: Whether besides the intellectual soul there are in man other souls essentially different from one another? I answer that, Plato held that there were several souls in one body, distinct even as to organs, to which souls he referred the different vital actions, saying that the nutritive power is in the liver, the concupiscible in the heart, and the power of knowledge in the brain. Which opinion is rejected by Aristotle (De Anima ii, 2), with regard to those parts of the soul which use corporeal or”
- Schaff ANF/NPNF (Patristic) “ANF Vol 4: Tertullian IV, Minucius Felix, Commodian, Origen — CHAP. VIII.--ON THE SOUL (ANIMA). (part 1): 1. The order of our arrangement now requires us, after the discussion of the preceding subjects, to institute a general inquiry regarding the soul;[2] and, beginning with points of inferior importance, to ascend to those that are of greater. Now, that there are souls[3] in all living things, even in those which live in the waters, is, I suppose, doubted by no one. For the general opinion of all men maintains this; and confirmation from the authority of holy Scripture is added, when it is s”
- 1 Corinthians (Presbyterian) “Jamieson, Fausset & Brown on 1 Corinthians 15:50: (See on Co1 15:37; Co1 15:39). "Flesh and blood" of the same animal and corruptible nature as our present (Co1 15:44) animal-souled bodies, cannot inherit the kingdom of God. Therefore the believer acquiesces gladly in the unrepealed sentence of the holy law, which appoints the death of the present body as the necessary preliminary to the resurrection body of glory. Hence he "dies daily" to the flesh and to the world, as the necessary condition to his regeneration here and hereafter (Joh 3:6; Gal 2:20). As the being born of the flesh constitute”