Oaths and Promises in Ancient Israelite Culture

Oaths and promises played a significant role in ancient Israelite culture, serving to confirm agreements, settle disputes, and bind individuals to various commitments. An oath was understood as an ultimate appeal to divine authority to ratify an assertion or promise ^[3]. This principle is highlighted in Hebrews 6:16, which states that "men swear by one greater than themselves, and with them an oath given as confirmation ends all dispute" ^[1].

The practice of taking oaths was ancient, appearing in texts such as Genesis 14:22 and 24:3,8 ^[1]. Oaths were used for several key purposes:

Confirming Covenants: Oaths were integral to establishing and confirming covenants, whether between individuals or nations. Examples include covenants between Abraham and Abimelech (Genesis 26:28) and Jacob and Laban (Genesis 31:44, 53) ^[1]. The covenant between God and Israel at Sinai, for instance, involved promises on condition and was renewed in the plains of Moab ^[5]. Similarly, ancient Near Eastern suzerain-vassal treaties, which resemble God's covenant with Israel, involved the vassal taking an oath of loyalty to their lord ^[7]. God himself swore an oath to Abraham, guaranteeing his promises ^{[10, 11]}.
Deciding Controversies: In legal contexts, oaths were used to decide disputes, as seen in Exodus 22:11 and Numbers 5:19 ^[1].
Pledging Allegiance: Oaths could pledge allegiance to rulers, as in 2 Kings 11:4 ^[1].
Binding to Sacred Duties: Individuals could bind themselves to sacred duties through oaths, such as those mentioned in Numbers 30:2 and Nehemiah 10:29 ^{[1, 2]}.
Binding to Specific Actions: Oaths were also used to commit to particular actions, like Abraham making his servant swear to find a wife for Isaac (Genesis 24:3-4) or Joseph making the Israelites swear to carry his bones out of Egypt (Genesis 50:25) ^[1].

The solemnity of an oath was often emphasized by appealing to the highest authority, typically God's name ^[3]. This is evident in the judicial form of administering oaths, where individuals might be put under oath by God (Matthew 26:63) ^[1]. Sometimes, an oath was accompanied by the physical act of raising a hand, as seen in Genesis 14:22 and Daniel 12:7 ^[1].

Vows, closely related to oaths, were voluntary promises that, once made, were expected to be kept if the promised action was righteous ^[4]. These could be made under various circumstances, such as Jacob's vow at Bethel (Genesis 28:18-22) or Hannah's vow concerning Samuel (1 Samuel 1:11) ^[4]. The "clear utterance of her lips" in Numbers 30:9 is interpreted as referring to an oath ^[6].

The binding nature of oaths was so strong that even when an oath was made under false pretenses, it was still considered valid. For example, Israel entered into a peace treaty with the Gibeonites, guaranteed by an oath, even though they had been deceived ^[9]. This highlights the gravity with which oaths were regarded. The solemn oath often involved not only a promise but also a self-imposed curse for failure to fulfill what was promised ^[8].

God's own oaths are presented as immutable, providing strong assurance. When God swore an oath, it was to demonstrate "the unchangeableness of his counsel" ^[12]. This divine oath was not given conditionally in the same way human oaths might be, as God is not a man who would repent ^[11]. The validity of treaty arrangements, whether between individuals or nations, was secured by the vows of both parties ^[13].

Sources

Torrey's Topical Textbook “Torrey's Topical Textbook: Oaths — The lawful purpose of, explained -- Heb 6:16. Antiquity of -- Ge 14:22; 24:3,8. Used for Confirming covenants. -- Ge 26:28; 31:44,53; 1Sa 20:16,17. Deciding controversies in courts of law. -- Ex 22:11; Nu 5:19; 1Ki 8:31. Pledging allegiance to sovereigns. -- 2Ki 11:4; Ec 8:2. Binding to performance of sacred duties. -- Nu 30:2; 2Ch 15:14,15; Ne 10:29; Ps 132:2. Binding to performance of any particular act. -- Ge 24:3,4; 50:25; Jos 2:12. Judicial from of administering -- 1Ki 22:16; Mt 26:63. Often accompanied by raising up the hand -- Ge 14:22; Da 12:7; Re 10:”
Psalms “how he swore to Yahweh, and vowed to the Mighty One of Jacob: -- Psalms 132:2”
Smith's Bible Dictionary “Smith's Bible Dictionary: Oath — The principle on which an oath is held to be binding is incidentally laid down in (Hebrews 6:16) viz. as an ultimate appeal to divine authority to ratify an assertion. On the same principle, that oath has always been held most binding which appealed to the highest authority, as regards both individuals and communities. As a consequence of this principle, appeals to God's name on the one hand, and to heathen deities on the other, are treated in scripture as tests of allegiance. (Exodus 23:13; 34:6; 29:12) etc. So also the sovereign's name is sometimes used as a ”
Easton's Bible Dictionary “Easton's Bible Dictionary: Vows — Voluntary promises which, when once made, were to be kept if the thing vowed was right. They were made under a great variety of circumstances (Gen. 28: 18-22; Lev. 7:16; Num. 30:2-13; Deut. 23:18; Judg. 11:30, 39; 1 Sam. 1:11; Jonah 1:16; Acts 18:18; 21:23).”
Brown-Driver-Briggs “[BDB H1285] berith (part 3/6) — with Israel at Sinai = Horeb, with a covenant sacrifice Exod 19:5; 24:7-8, (E) 34:10, 27, 28 (J) 31:16; Lev 2:13 (P) 24:8; 26:9, 15, 25, 44, 45 (H) Deut 4:13; renewed in plains of Moab Deuteronomy 28:69; with blessings and curses 29:20; frequently referred to in other books 2Chr 34:32; Psa 25:10; 44:18; 50:5; 50:16; 74:20; 78:10; 78:37; 103:18; 106:45; 111:5; 111:9; Isa 56:4, 6; Jer 1:2-3, 6, 8, 10; 14:21; 22:9; 31:32; Ezek 16:8, 59, 60; 44:7; Dan 9:4; 11:28, 30, 32; Hosea 6:7; 8:1; Zech 9:11; 11:10; a divine constitution given to Israel with promises on conditi”
Sefaria (Jewish (Rationalist)) “Abraham Ibn Ezra on Numbers 30:9: AND THE CLEAR UTTERANCE OF HER LIPS. The oath.”
Leviticus (Protestant academic) “Tyndale House on Leviticus 26:3: 26:3-39 These blessings and curses resemble a key element of ancient Near Eastern suzerain-vassal treaties. In such treaties, the suzerain king promised to defend the vassal king and his state, while the vassal took an oath of loyalty to his lord. Blessings and curses followed, with the curses generally being more lengthy (contrast 26:3-13 with 26:14-39; cp. Deut 27:15–28:68). Such treaties would call upon the gods as witnesses and enforcers. In God’s covenant with Israel, however, the Lord was one of the parties to the treaty (Israel being the other); since th”
Ezra (Protestant academic) “Tyndale House on Ezra 10:5: 10:5 The solemn oath involved both a promise to take action and a self-imposed curse for failure to do what was promised (see Ruth 1:16-17; 1 Sam 14:24-28).”
Joshua (Protestant academic) “Tyndale House on Joshua 9:15: 9:15 Israel entered into a peace treaty with the Gibeonites. The Israelites were God’s vassals, having entered into a suzerain-vassal treaty with God at Sinai (see study note on Exod 20:1–23:33). Israel did not have authority to enter into treaties without the approval of their own suzerain. • guaranteed their safety (literally cut with them a covenant for their lives): Nations ratified covenants by a ceremony that involved cutting sacrificial animals in half. The parties to the covenant walked between the two animal halves (cp. Gen 15:9-18) to symbolize their com”
Deuteronomy (Protestant academic) “Tyndale House on Deuteronomy 7:12: 7:12 promised with an oath (literally swore): In a covenant or treaty, the parties to the covenant had to swear to keep its terms in order for it to be valid. God’s promises are always guaranteed by his character (7:9; 32:4; Heb 6:18; Jas 1:17). He fulfilled the requirements of the covenant with Israel by swearing to keep its terms (see Gen 22:16).”
Sefaria (Jewish (Kabbalistic/Philosophical)) “Ramban (Nachmanides) on Genesis 26:3: AND I WILL FULFILL THE OATH WHICH I SWORE UNTO ABRAHAM THY FATHER. There is no need for the Holy One, blessed be He, to assure Isaac that He will not violate the oath which He swore to his father, for He is not a man, that He should repent . 127 I Samuel 15:29. Abraham had no other seed upon whom a covenant had been established with G-d except Isaac. The oath, moreover, was not given on condition. In the case of Jacob, 128 Further, 35:12. And [[illegible]] land which I gave to Abraham and Isaac, to thee will I give it . it was necessary that he be given su”
Hebrews (Presbyterian) “Jamieson, Fausset & Brown on Hebrews 6:17: Wherein--that is, Which being the case among men, God, in accommodation to their manner of confirming covenants, superadded to His sure word His oath: the "TWO immutable things" (Heb 6:18). willing . . . counsel--Greek, "willing . . . will"; words akin. Expressing the utmost benignity [BENGEL]. more abundantly--than had He not sworn. His word would have been amply enough; but, to make assurance doubly sure, He "interposed with an oath" (so the Greek). Literally, He acted as Mediator, coming between Himself and us; as if He were less, while He swea”
Deuteronomy (Protestant academic) “Tyndale House on Deuteronomy 31:30: 31:30–32:47 In ancient times, the validity of a treaty arrangement between individuals or nations was secured by both parties’ vows. Israel’s promise was in the song of witness that Moses composed under divine inspiration (31:19-22). When Israel sang the song (presumably as part of a regular covenant-renewal ceremony; 31:21), they invoked upon themselves the covenant’s judgments and reminded themselves of its promises.”

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