Socratic Method Used by Antagonist to Attack Believers
Early Christian apologists faced antagonists who employed sophisticated rhetorical strategies to undermine the faith, often using questioning techniques that superficially resembled the Socratic method but served polemical rather than pedagogical ends. Celsus, a second-century critic of Christianity, exemplified this approach by framing accusations as inquiries designed to expose perceived contradictions in Christian teaching and practice.
Rhetorical Assault Through Questioning
Celsus attacked Christians by posing questions that presupposed false premises. He asserted "that it is by the names of certain demons, and by the use of incantations, that the Christians appear to be possessed of (miraculous) power," deliberately mischaracterizing Christian exorcisms to make them appear indistinguishable from pagan magic [2]. This technique—embedding an accusation within a seemingly neutral observation—forced defenders to disprove a slander rather than simply articulate their position. Origen recognized this as maligning the Gospel, noting that Christians prevailed "not by incantations...but by the name of Jesus, accompanied by the announcement of the narratives" [2].
Similarly, Celsus confused distinct theological concepts to manufacture contradictions, claiming Christians termed the Creator "an accursed divinity" [4]. By distorting Christian language about the relationship between Old and New Testaments, he aimed to provoke hostility: "that he who believes these charges of his against us, should, if possible, arise and exterminate the Christians as the most impious of mankind" [4].
The Broader Pattern of Attack
This questioning strategy formed part of paganism's second wave of assault after persecution failed. Having "tried persecution as its first weapon, and seen it fall," opponents "attempted next to discredit the new faith by slandering its doctrine, impeaching its history, and attacking with special persistency the veracity of the Gospel writers" [1]. The method proved particularly insidious because it mimicked legitimate philosophical inquiry while actually serving to inflame prejudice.
Justin Martyr observed that accusers refused genuine examination of charges, instead "yielding to unreasoning passion, and to the instigation of evil demons" [3]. The antagonists' questions were not open-ended searches for truth but rhetorical traps designed to make any Christian response appear defensive or evasive. Augustine later noted how these tactics persisted, with opponents "stretching forth His hands to a people unbelieving and contradicting" [5], maintaining hostility even when offered patient explanation.
Sources
- Schaff ANF/NPNF (Patristic) “NPNF1 Vol 6: Augustine — Homilies on the Gospels — TRANSLATOR'S INTRODUCTORY NOTICE. (part 2): assaults of the heathen. Paganism, having tried persecution as its first weapon, and seen it fall, attempted next to discredit the new faith by slandering its doctrine, impeaching its history, and attacking with special persistency the veracity of the Gospel writers. In this it was aided by some of Augustin's heretical antagonists, who endeavoured at times to establish a conspicuous inconsistency between the Jewish Scriptures and the Christian, and at times to prove the several sections of the New Te”
- Schaff ANF/NPNF (Patristic) “ANF Vol 4: Tertullian IV, Minucius Felix, Commodian, Origen — CHAP. VI.: After this, through the influence of some motive which is unknown to me, Celsus asserts that it is by the names of certain demons, and by the use of incantations, that the Christians appear to be possessed of (miraculous) power; hinting, I suppose, at the practices of those who expel evil spirits by incantations. And here he manifestly appears to malign the Gospel. For it is not by incantations that Christians seem to prevail (over evil spirits), but by the name of Jesus, accompanied by the announcement of the narratives ”
- Schaff ANF/NPNF (Patristic) “ANF Vol 1: Clement, Polycarp, Ignatius, Barnabas, Papias, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus — CHAP. V.--CHRISTIANS CHARGED WITH ATHEISM.: Why, then, should this be? In our case, who pledge ourselves to do no wickedness, nor to hold these atheistic opinions, you do not examine the charges made against us; but, yielding to unreasoning passion, and to the instigation of evil demons, you punish us without consideration or judgment. For the truth shall be spoken; since of old these evil demons, effecting apparitions of themselves, both defiled women and corrupted boys, and showed such fearful sights to men, ”
- Schaff ANF/NPNF (Patristic) “ANF Vol 4: Tertullian IV, Minucius Felix, Commodian, Origen — CHAP. XXVIII.: With some such object as this in view does Celsus seem to have been actuated, when he alleged that Christians term the Creator an "accursed divinity;" in order that he who believes these charges of his against us, should, if possible, arise and exterminate the Christians as the most impious Of mankind. Confusing, moreover, things that are distinct,(9) he states also the reason why the God of the Mosaic cosmogony is termed "accursed," asserting that "such is his character, and worthy of execration in the 586 opinion of”
- Schaff ANF/NPNF (Patristic) “NPNF1 Vol 8: Augustine — Exposition on Psalms — PSALM LV.[5] (part 11): Cross."[5] He was stretching forth His hands to a people unbelieving and contradicting. For if just he is that of faith liveth,[6] unjust he is that hath not faith. By that which here he saith "iniquity," I understand unbelief. The Lord therefore was seeing in the city iniquity and contradiction, and was stretching forth His hands to a people unbelieving and contradicting: and nevertheless waiting for these same, He was saying, "Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do."[7] Even now indeed there rage the remnan”