The Harrowing of Hell in Christian Theology and Eschatology
The phrase "harrowing of hell" refers to Christ's descent to the realm of the dead between his crucifixion and resurrection, a doctrine rooted in the Apostles' Creed's statement that Christ "descended into hell." The term "harrowing" derives from the Old English hergian, meaning to despoil or plunder, suggesting a victorious raid rather than passive suffering. This doctrine addresses what Christ accomplished during the interval between Good Friday and Easter Sunday, particularly concerning the fate of Old Testament saints and the scope of his redemptive work.
Biblical Foundations and Terminological Precision
The biblical basis for this doctrine centers on several New Testament passages. First Peter 3:19 states that Christ "went and preached unto the spirits in prison," while Acts 2:31 declares that "his soul was not left in hell, neither his flesh did see corruption" [2]. Luke 23:43 records Christ's promise to the thief on the cross: "Today shalt thou be with me in paradise" [2]. These texts locate Christ's post-mortem activity in what Scripture calls Sheol (Hebrew) or Hades (Greek).
Understanding the terminology is essential. Sheol, appearing sixty-five times in the Old Testament, derives from a root meaning "to ask" or "demand," suggesting insatiability [1]. The term was rendered "grave" thirty-one times in the King James Version, including Genesis 37:35, 42:38, and 1 Samuel 2:6 [1]. Sheol designates "the place of the dead, the unseen world, without deciding whether it be the place of misery or of happiness" [3]. In many Old Testament passages, Sheol clearly means simply "the grave," though in others it carries connotations of punishment [3].
The New Testament distinguishes between Hades and Gehenna. Hades corresponds to the Hebrew Sheol and refers to "the place of the dead" [5], whereas Gehenna designates "the place of eternal punishment" [6]. Gehenna originally referred to the Valley of Hinnom outside Jerusalem, where some Judean kings practiced idolatry and child sacrifice by fire, a site later destroyed by Josiah [8]. This geographical location became a metaphor for final judgment, appearing in passages like Matthew 5:22, 29-30, and 23:15 [6, 8].
The Structure of the Intermediate State
According to Luke 16:23, the realm of disembodied spirits contained distinct compartments: "a place of rest, Abraham's bosom" identified with "Paradise," and "a place of torment" [2]. This bipartite structure suggests that Hades itself was not uniformly a place of punishment but housed both the righteous dead and the wicked in separate conditions. The parable of the rich man and Lazarus depicts this division, with Abraham's bosom representing the resting place of Old Testament believers awaiting the Messiah's redemptive work.
The doctrine of the harrowing addresses what happened to the righteous dead of the old covenant. If Christ's atoning death was necessary for salvation, how were Abraham, Moses, and David saved? Traditional formulations hold that these saints were saved by faith in the coming Messiah, their sins covered provisionally until Christ's actual sacrifice. The descent into Hades, then, represents Christ proclaiming his completed work to these waiting souls and leading them into the full presence of God.
Historical Development and Confessional Status
The harrowing of hell appears in the Apostles' Creed, one of Christianity's oldest summaries of faith, though the phrase "descended into hell" (descendit ad inferos) was not universally present in the creed's earliest forms. Its inclusion reflects patristic reflection on the scope of Christ's victory. The doctrine received extensive treatment in medieval theology and art, where Christ's descent was depicted as a triumphant liberation of the patriarchs and prophets from Limbo, a concept developed to explain the intermediate state of pre-Christian righteous souls.
Protestant Reformers debated the meaning of the descent. Some, like John Calvin, interpreted it metaphorically as Christ's suffering of God's wrath on the cross rather than a literal journey to the underworld. Others maintained the traditional understanding of a literal descent. The Westminster Confession and other Reformed standards generally avoid detailed elaboration, focusing instead on Christ's burial and the reality of his death.
Eschatological Implications
The harrowing doctrine intersects with broader eschatological questions about the final state of the wicked. Scripture describes eternal punishment using images of "everlasting fire," "a lake of fire," "fire and brimstone," and "unquenchable fire" [2]. The "fiery lake of burning sulfur" in Revelation 19:20 and 20:10-15 depicts the ultimate destination of God's enemies, including the beast, the false prophet, the dragon, death itself, and unsaved humans [4]. These images of "deepest darkness and wildfire" are consistently associated with God's judgment throughout Scripture [7, 9].
The doctrine raises questions about the scope of Christ's proclamation in Hades. Did he offer salvation to all the dead, only to Old Testament believers, or merely announce his victory? First Peter 3:19 describes preaching to "spirits in prison," but the text does not specify the content or result of that proclamation. Some traditions have understood this as an offer of salvation to those who died before Christ; others see it as a declaration of judgment or a proclamation of accomplished redemption to the righteous alone.
The harrowing also clarifies the distinction between Hades and the final state. Revelation 20:14 states that "death and hell [Hades] were cast into the lake of fire," indicating that Hades itself is temporary, a holding place before final judgment [4]. The lake of fire represents the second death, the eternal separation from God described as "destruction from the presence of God" in 2 Thessalonians 1:9 [2]. This distinction prevents conflating the intermediate state with the final eschatological reality, a confusion that has marked popular Christian imagination for centuries.
Sources
- Easton's Bible Dictionary “Easton's Bible Dictionary: Hell — Derived from the Saxon helan, to cover; hence the covered or the invisible place. In Scripture there are three words so rendered: (1.) Sheol, occurring in the Old Testament sixty-five times. This word sheol is derived from a root-word meaning "to ask," "demand;" hence insatiableness (Prov. 30:15, 16). It is rendered "grave" thirty-one times (Gen. 37:35; 42:38; 44:29, 31; 1 Sam. 2:6, etc.). The Revisers have retained this rendering in the historical books with the original word in the margin, while in the poetical books they have reversed this rule. In thirty-o”
- Torrey's Topical Textbook “Torrey's Topical Textbook: Hell — The place of disembodied spirits -- Ac 2:31. Which Christ visited. -- Lu 23:43; Ac 2:31; 1Pe 3:19. Contains, a place of rest, Abraham's bosom. -- Lu 16:23. Paradise. -- Lu 23:43. And a place of torment. -- Lu 16:23. The place of future punishment Destruction from the presence of God. -- 2Th 1:9. Described as Everlasting punishment. -- Mt 25:46. Everlasting fire. -- Mt 25:41. Everlasting burnings. -- Isa 33:14. A furnace of fire. -- Mt 13:42,50. A lake of fire. -- Re 20:15. Fire and brimstone. -- Re 14:10. Unquenchable fire. -- Mt 3:12. Devouring fire. -- Isa 3”
- Smith's Bible Dictionary “Smith's Bible Dictionary: Hell — In the Old Testament this is the word generally and unfortunately used by our translators to render the Hebrew Sheol . It really means the place of the dead, the unseen world, without deciding whether it be the place of misery or of happiness. It is clear that in many passages of the Old Testament Sheol can only mean "the grave," and is rendered in the Authorized Version; see, for example, (Genesis 37:35; 42:38; 1 Samuel 2:6; Job 14:13) In other passages, however, it seems to Involve a notion of punishment, and is therefore rendered in the Authorized Version by”
- Revelation (Protestant academic) “Tyndale House on Revelation 19:20: 19:20 beast . . . false prophet See 13:1-10. • The fiery lake of burning sulfur provides a picture of eternal punishment (see 20:10, 14-15; 21:8; see also Isa 66:24; Matt 13:41, 49-50; Mark 9:43, 48). • God’s enemies are thrown into the fiery lake. The two beasts (Rev 19:20) are followed by the dragon (20:10) and then by death (20:14) and unsaved humans (20:15).”
- Matthew (Protestant academic) “Tyndale House on Matthew 11:23: 11:23 the place of the dead: Greek Hades, which corresponds to the Hebrew term Sheol (see study note on Ps 6:5).”
- James (Protestant academic) “Tyndale House on James 3:6: 3:6 It is a whole world of wickedness: The tongue acts as an agent of the whole unrighteous world opposed to God (1:27; 4:4). • hell itself: Greek Gehenna, the place of eternal punishment (Matt 5:22, 30; 23:15), in contrast to Hades, the abode of the dead (Luke 16:23; Acts 2:31). The reference to hell is an allusion to the devil (Jas 4:7; Matt 5:22; John 8:44) as the ultimate source of evil speech.”
- Job (Protestant academic) “Tyndale House on Job 20:26: 20:26 Images such as deepest darkness and wildfire are often associated with God’s presence (Deut 4:11; 5:22-23; Heb 12:18) and especially with his judgment (Exod 9:23-24; 10:21-29).”
- Matthew (Protestant academic) “Tyndale House on Matthew 5:29: 5:29-30 good eye . . . gouge it out . . . stronger hand . . . cut it off: These graphic images call for radical separation from sin. But even self-mutilation, radical as it would be, cannot stop a lustful mind. Jesus is calling for the surpassing righteousness that only he can bring. 5:29 hell (Greek Gehenna): Gehenna originally referred to a valley outside Jerusalem where some of the kings of Judah worshiped idols and performed human sacrifice by fire (2 Chr 28:3; 33:6; Jer 7:31; 32:35). The site was eventually destroyed by Josiah (2 Kgs 23:10). In the New Testa”
- Psalms (Protestant academic) “Tyndale House on Psalms 21:9: 21:9 The flaming furnace and fire portray the severity of God’s judgment on the wicked. In the Old Testament, this image often refers to hell (11:6; 18:8; 50:3; 68:2; 78:21; 79:5; 80:16; 89:46; 97:3; 104:4; 140:10; see Isa 66:24).”