Human Free Will and Choice in Theological Debate
The extent of human free will and its role in salvation is a perennially debated topic across Christian traditions. The core of the disagreement often centers on whether humanity, after the Fall, retains the capacity to initiate a saving response to God, or if divine grace must entirely precede and enable such a response.
One perspective, often associated with Reformed theology, emphasizes humanity's fallen state as rendering individuals incapable of choosing spiritual good without divine intervention. John Calvin, for instance, argued that after the fall, humanity is "deprived of all liberty" in spiritual matters, becoming "miserably enslaved" [6]. This view suggests that while humans possess a will, it is so corrupted by sin that it cannot choose God apart from regenerating grace. The Augsburg Confession, a Lutheran document, similarly states that while human will has "some liberty to choose civil righteousness," it has "no power, without the Holy Ghost, to work the righteousness of God" [7]. This position often points to passages like 1 Corinthians 2:14, which states that "the natural man receiveth not the things of the Spirit of God" [7].
In contrast, other traditions affirm a more robust understanding of human free will, even after the Fall. The Catechism of the Catholic Church acknowledges that while humanity faces "many difficulties in coming to know God by the light of reason alone," human reason is still "truly capable by its own natural power and light of attaining to a true and certain knowledge of the one personal God" [8]. This perspective often distinguishes between the will as a faculty of self-determination and the affections, suggesting that the will can still choose actions it conceives to be within its power [4]. Thomas Aquinas, a prominent Scholastic theologian, discussed a "twofold act of the will" in Christ, distinguishing between willing an end and willing the means to that end, implying a capacity for choice [5]. Patristic writers like John Chrysostom also affirmed the "Catholic doctrine of the true and perfect Godhead, united in One Person with true and perfect Manhood," which provides a framework for understanding human agency in relation to divine action [2].
Despite these differences, there is common ground. Most traditions agree that God's will is paramount and that holiness involves "doing God’s will" [3]. The concept of a "free-will offering" in the Old Testament, for example, denotes a spontaneous, voluntary gift, distinct from obligatory sacrifices [1]. This suggests an inherent human capacity for voluntary action, even if its spiritual efficacy is debated. The disagreement often stems from differing interpretations of the extent of sin's impact on human nature and the precise mechanism by which divine grace interacts with human volition.
Sources
- Easton's Bible Dictionary “Easton's Bible Dictionary: Free-will offering — A spontaneous gift (Ex. 35:29), a voluntary sacrifice (Lev. 22:23; Ezra 3:5), as opposed to one in consequence of a vow, or in expiation of some offence.”
- CCEL/NPNF (Eastern Orthodox) “John Chrysostom, Homilies on John & Hebrews: this he usually does with great success, since the Catholic doctrine of the true and perfect Godhead, united in One Person with true and perfect Manhood, affords a key that easily opens texts which most stubbornly resist any confused notion of an inferior Divinity, or an unreal Humanity. The texts urged by the heretic, put to this test, are found not really to belong to him. They are not even arguments so far for his view of the case, but perfectly consistent with the truth always held by the Church. There may remain a few cases, after attentive stu”
- 1 Thessalonians (Protestant academic) “Tyndale House on 1 Thessalonians 4:3: 4:3 God’s will is for you to be holy: The foundation of Christian ethics is not philosophical speculation about virtue but doing God’s will (Rom 12:1-2; Eph 6:6; Heb 10:36; 13:20-21). Holiness (1 Thes 4:4, 7) embraces all of a person’s life (5:23); here it involves staying away from sexual sin (Greek porneia, any sexual union outside marriage).”
- CCEL (Reformed (Old Princeton)) “Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology, Vol. 2, section 56: the will considered as the faculty of self-determination, and not as the seat of the affections, that comes into view. The question, why one man is led to love God, or Christ, or his fellow men, or truth and goodness; and another to love the world, or sin, is very different from the question, what determines him to do this or that particular act. The will is that faculty by which we determine to do something which we conceive to be in our power. The question, whether a man has power to change his own character at any moment, to give himse”
- theology (Catholic (Scholastic)) “Aquinas, Summa Theologica, Third Part (Tertia Pars), Of Christ's Unity of Will, Art. 4: Article: Whether there was free-will in Christ? I answer that, As was said above (Article [3]), there was a twofold act of the will in Christ; one whereby He was drawn to anything willed in itself, which implies the nature of an end; the other whereby His will was drawn to anything willed on account of its being ordained to another---which pertains to the nature of means. Now, as the Philosopher says (Ethic. iii, 2) choice differs from will in this, that will of itself regards the end, while choice regards”
- CCEL (Reformed) “John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, section 38: 221 CHAPTER 2. MAN NOW DEPRIVED OF FREEDOM OF WILL, AND MISERABLY ENSLAVED. Having in the first chapter treated of the fall of man, and the corruption of the human race, it becomes necessary to inquire, Whether the sons of Adam are deprived of all liberty; and if any particle of liberty remains, how far its power extends? The four next chapters are devoted to this question. This second chapter may be reduced to three general heads: I. The foundation of the whole discussion. II. The opinions of others on the subject of human freedom”
- Augsburg Confession (Lutheran) “Augsburg Confession (Lutheran, 1530), 1 Of Free Will they teach that man’s will has some liberty to: 1 Of Free Will they teach that man’s will has some liberty to choose civil righteousness, and to work 2 things subject to reason. But it has no power, without the Holy Ghost, to work the righteousness of God, that is, spiritual righteousness; since the natural man 3 receiveth not the things of the Spirit of God, 1 Cor. 2:14; but this righteousness is wrought in the heart when the Holy Ghost is received 4 through the Word. These things are said in as many words by Augustine in his Hypognosticon,”
- Catechism of the Catholic Church (Catholic) “Catechism of the Catholic Church, CHAPTER ONE (part 4): the image of God".12 37 In the historical conditions in which he finds himself, however, man experiences many difficulties in coming to know God by the light of reason alone: Though human reason is, strictly speaking, truly capable by its own natural power and light of attaining to a true and certain knowledge of the one personal God, who watches over and controls the world by his providence, and of the natural law written in our hearts by the Creator; yet there are many obstacles which prevent reason from the effective and fruitful use o”