Theological Developments in Intertestamental Judaism and Early Christianity
The period between the Old and New Testaments, often called the Intertestamental Period, and the subsequent early Christian era, saw significant theological developments, particularly in how Jewish traditions were reinterpreted or fulfilled in Christ. Early Christianity emerged from a Jewish context, and many of its foundational concepts built upon or contrasted with existing Jewish beliefs and practices [1].
One area of continuity and development was the concept of "the law." In the Intertestamental Period, Jewish thought often emphasized adherence to the Mosaic Law. Early Christian writings, such as Paul's Epistle to the Galatians, address those who made "the works of the law necessary to justification in opposition to Gospel grace" [2]. This indicates a theological tension regarding the role of the law in salvation. While some Jewish groups, later termed Judaizers, continued to insist on the necessity of legal observances for salvation, early Christian theology, particularly as articulated by Paul, emphasized faith in Christ as the means of justification [2]. However, not all Jewish legalism was seen as identical; some Judaizers were criticized for corrupting the law with "fables" that undermined morals and truth, rather than simply maintaining its obligation [2].
The concept of baptism also underwent significant development. Jewish tradition included various ritual washings and the baptism of proselytes [3]. John the Baptist's ministry introduced a baptism of repentance, which served as a precursor to Christian baptism. Early Christians transitioned from these Jewish purification rites and John's baptism to Christian baptism, which was often followed by the laying on of hands, a practice associated with the gift of the Holy Spirit [3]. The author of Hebrews refers to "the doctrine of baptisms" (plural), suggesting an understanding that encompassed both Jewish and Christian forms of the rite [3]. This plural usage indicates a recognition of different baptismal practices, with Christian baptism being the fulfillment or culmination of earlier forms [3].
The early Christian community also grappled with the need for spiritual maturity among believers. The Epistle to the Hebrews, for instance, admonishes its audience for remaining "babes" in their understanding, needing to move beyond "the first principles" or "the rudiments of the beginning of" Christian doctrine [4, 8]. These foundational elements, which the author lists as "repentance from dead works, and of faith toward God, of the doctrine of baptisms, and of laying on of hands, and of resurrection of the dead, and of eternal judgment," were likely familiar to those with a Jewish background [6]. The author encourages them to progress to a deeper understanding, particularly concerning the person of Christ, which is elaborated in subsequent chapters [6]. Calvin, commenting on Hebrews, notes that while the foundation of faith must never be abandoned, it would be "ridiculous" to perpetually labor in "laying the foundation" [4]. This highlights the early Christian emphasis on spiritual growth and moving beyond initial conversion experiences.
The Jewish expectation of "signs" also played a role in the theological landscape of early Christianity. Jews often sought miraculous "signs" as direct tokens from heaven to confirm the Messiah's identity [7]. This expectation contrasted with the Christian message of Christ crucified, which was often perceived as "foolishness" by those seeking such signs or philosophical wisdom [7]. The Apostle Paul, in 1 Corinthians, notes that "Jews demand signs and Greeks seek wisdom, but we preach Christ crucified" [7]. This distinction underscores a significant theological divergence: while Jewish tradition often looked for external validation through wonders, early Christianity centered on the internal transformation brought about by faith in the crucified and resurrected Christ.
The early Christian understanding of God's immutability and faithfulness also built upon Old Testament concepts. The author of Hebrews, quoting Psalm 102, affirms that while the heavens and earth will "perish" and be "changed," God remains "the same" [5]. This echoes Old Testament declarations of God's unchanging nature, such as in Malachi 3:6 ("For I the Lord do not change") and Isaiah 46:4 ("Even to your old age I am he, and to gray hairs I will carry you") [5]. This continuity in understanding God's character provided a stable theological foundation for early Christians, assuring them of God's covenant faithfulness despite the radical newness of the Christian message.
The development of early Christian theology, therefore, involved both continuity with and significant reinterpretation of Jewish theological concepts. Practices like baptism were transformed, the role of the law was redefined, and the understanding of spiritual maturity was deepened. These developments were often articulated in response to internal challenges and external expectations, shaping the distinct identity of the nascent Christian movement.
Sources
- Galatians (Presbyterian) “Jamieson, Fausset & Brown on Galatians 1:13: heard--even before I came among you. conversation--"my former way of life." Jews' religion--The term, "Hebrew," expresses the language; "Jew," the nationality, as distinguished from the Gentiles; "Israelite," the highest title, the religious privileges, as a member of the theocracy. the church--Here singular, marking its unity, though constituted of many particular churches, under the one Head, Christ. of God--added to mark the greatness of his sinful alienation from God (Co1 15:19). wasted--laid it waste: the opposite of "building it up."”
- 1 Timothy (Presbyterian) “Jamieson, Fausset & Brown on 1 Timothy 1:7: Sample of their "vain talk" (Ti1 1:6). Desiring--They are would-be teachers, not really so. the law--the Jewish law (Tit 1:14; Tit 3:9). The Judaizers here meant seem to be distinct from those impugned in the Epistles to the Galatians and Romans, who made the works of the law necessary to justification in opposition to Gospel grace. The Judaizers here meant corrupted the law with "fables," which they pretended to found on it, subversive of morals as well as of truth. Their error was not in maintaining the obligation of the law, but in abusing it ”
- Hebrews (Presbyterian) “Jamieson, Fausset & Brown on Hebrews 6:2: the doctrine of baptisms--paired with "laying on of hands," as the latter followed on Christian baptism, and answers to the rite of confirmation in Episcopal churches. Jewish believers passed, by an easy transition, from Jewish baptismal purifications (Heb 9:10, "washings"), baptism of proselytes, and John's baptism, and legal imposition of hands, to their Christian analogues, baptism, and the subsequent laying on of hands, accompanied by the gift of the Holy Ghost (compare Heb 6:4). Greek, "baptismoi," plural, including Jewish and Christian baptisms, ”
- Hebrews (Presbyterian) “Jamieson, Fausset & Brown on Hebrews 6 (introduction): WARNING AGAINST RETROGRADING, WHICH SOON LEADS TO APOSTASY; ENCOURAGEMENT TO STEADFASTNESS FROM GOD'S FAITHFULNESS TO HIS WORD AND OATH. (Heb 6:1-14) Therefore--Wherefore: seeing that ye ought not now to be still "babes" (Heb 5:11-14). leaving--getting further forward than the elementary "principles." "As in building a house one must never leave the foundation: yet to be always laboring in 'laying the foundation' would be ridiculous" [CALVIN]. the principles of the doctrine--Greek, "the word of the beginning," that is, the discussion ”
- Hebrews (Presbyterian) “Jamieson, Fausset & Brown on Hebrews 1:12: vesture--Greek, "an enwrapping cloak." fold them up--So the Septuagint, Psa 102:26; but the Hebrew, "change them." The Spirit, by Paul, treats the Hebrew of the Old Testament, with independence of handling, presenting the divine truth in various aspects; sometimes as here sanctioning the Septuagint (compare Isa 34:4; Rev 6:14); sometimes the Hebrew; sometimes varying from both. changed--as one lays aside a garment to put on another. thou art the same-- (Isa 46:4; Mal 3:6). The same in nature, therefore in covenant faithfulness to Thy people. s”
- Hebrews (Protestant academic) “Tyndale House on Hebrews 6:1: 6:1-3 In light of the hearers’ immaturity (5:11-14), the author urges them to move beyond basic teachings. The six basic teachings here were all foundational elements of Jewish instruction. The author might be challenging them to move beyond these basic teachings to further understanding about the person of Christ, which he elaborates in 7:1–10:25. 6:1 Let us go on: Or Let us be carried on, suggesting that God initiates growth to maturity (Phil 2:12-13) and that it is an ongoing process. • Repenting and faith are the basic commitments that initiate a person to the”
- 1 Corinthians (Presbyterian) “Jamieson, Fausset & Brown on 1 Corinthians 1:22: For--literally, "Since," seeing that. This verse illustrates how the "preaching" of Christ crucified came to be deemed "foolishness" (Co1 1:21). a sign--The oldest manuscripts read "signs." The singular was a later correction from Mat 12:38; Mat 16:1; Joh 2:18. The signs the Jews craved for were not mere miracles, but direct tokens from heaven that Jesus was Messiah (Luk 11:16). Greeks seek . . . wisdom--namely, a philosophic demonstration of Christianity. Whereas Christ, instead of demonstrative proof, demands faith on the ground of His wor”
- Hebrews (Presbyterian) “Jamieson, Fausset & Brown on Hebrews 5:12: for the time--considering the long time that you have been Christians. Therefore this Epistle was not one of those written early. which be the first principles--Greek, "the rudiments of the beginning of." A Pauline phrase (see on Gal 4:3; Gal 4:9). Ye need not only to be taught the first elements, but also "which they be." They are therefore enumerated Heb 6:1-2 [BENGEL]. ALFORD translates, "That someone teach you the rudiments"; but the position of the Greek, "tina," inclines me to take it interrogatively, "which," as English Version, Syriac, Vulga”