Understanding Original Sin in Christian Theology

Original sin is a theological concept that addresses the fallen state of humanity resulting from the first sin of Adam and Eve, often referred to as the Fall ^[5]. This initial act of disobedience introduced sin and its consequences into the human race, affecting all subsequent generations ^{[5, 7]}. The concept of sin itself is defined as "any want of conformity unto or transgression of the law of God" ^[1].

The biblical narrative of the Fall is found in Genesis 2 and 3, which is interpreted as a literal historical event that underpins the entire system of revealed truth ^[5]. Through the disobedience of Adam, humanity became subject to sin and misery ^{[5, 7]}. This is reflected in passages like Romans 5:12, 15, 19, which connect Adam's transgression to the sinfulness of all people ^[7]. As a result, humanity is described as being "born in sin" (Psalm 51:5) and inherently evil in heart (Genesis 6:5, 8:21) ^{[7, 11]}.

Different traditions articulate the nature and transmission of original sin in distinct ways:

Western Christian Traditions (Catholic and Protestant)

In Western Christianity, a prominent view is that Adam's sin resulted in both guilt and corruption being passed down to his descendants.

Catholicism: Thomas Aquinas, a key figure in Scholastic theology, taught that there is one original sin in each person, stemming from the single sin of the first parent ^[9]. This original sin is understood as a privation of original righteousness, a supernatural gift that was lost through Adam's transgression ^[10]. While the soul is not inherently evil, it is left in a state lacking this original righteousness ^[10]. Infants are considered to be involved in the guilt of the first parents' sins, and potentially even those of their immediate parents, before regeneration through the new covenant ^[15].
Reformed/Protestantism: John Calvin, a leading Reformer, emphasized that humanity is born "vicious and perverse" ^{[12, 16]}. He argued against the Pelagian view that sin is merely an imitation of Adam's sin, pointing to David's confession in Psalm 51:5 ("conceived in sin") as evidence that sin is inherited from birth ^[16]. Calvin's understanding of original sin includes a complete corruption of all parts of the soul, requiring a full reformation ^[12]. Charles Hodge, an Old Princeton theologian, noted that the Latin Church generally held that the effect of Adam's sin was the loss of original righteousness, leaving the soul in a state it would have been in without that supernatural gift ^[10]. The Augsburg Confession, a foundational Lutheran document, also addresses original sin in its second article ^[14]. John Gill, a Baptist commentator, interpreted Psalm 106:6 to mean that people "sinned in their first father Adam" and derived a corrupt nature from their ancestors ^[13].

Eastern Orthodox Tradition

The Eastern Orthodox understanding of original sin differs from the Western emphasis on inherited guilt. While acknowledging the Fall of Adam and Eve and its consequences, Eastern Orthodoxy typically focuses on the inheritance of a fallen nature and mortality rather than inherited guilt. John of Damascus, an influential Eastern Father, discusses the consequences of the Fall, but the concept of "original sin" as inherited guilt is not articulated in the same way as in the West ^[17]. Instead, the focus is on the ancestral sin (προπατορικὴ ἁμαρτία), which introduced death, corruption, and a propensity to sin into the human condition. All humanity participates in the consequences of Adam's sin, but not necessarily in his personal guilt.

Commonalities and Consequences

Despite these differences, there is a shared understanding that sin is a profound issue. Sin is described as originating from the heart (Matthew 15:19), being the fruit of lust (James 1:15), and ultimately leading to death ^{[6, 8]}. It is a rebellion against God and an offense against a personal lawgiver ^{[1, 8]}. The devil is identified as the one who has been sinning from the beginning, and those who practice sin are said to be "of the devil" ^{[3, 4, 8]}. The purpose of Christ's revelation is to destroy the works of the devil ^{[3, 4]}. Forgiveness of sin, a constituent part of justification, involves God absolving the sinner from the condemnation of the law through the work of Christ, removing the guilt of sin and the liability to eternal wrath ^[2].

Sources

Easton's Bible Dictionary “Easton's Bible Dictionary: Sin — Is "any want of conformity unto or transgression of the law of God" (1 John 3:4; Rom. 4:15), in the inward state and habit of the soul, as well as in the outward conduct of the life, whether by omission or commission (Rom. 6:12-17; 7:5-24). It is "not a mere violation of the law of our constitution, nor of the system of things, but an offence against a personal lawgiver and moral governor who vindicates his law with penalties. The soul that sins is always conscious that his sin is (1) intrinsically vile and polluting, and (2) that it justly deserves punishment,”
Easton's Bible Dictionary “Easton's Bible Dictionary: Forgiveness of sin — One of the constituent parts of justification. In pardoning sin, God absolves the sinner from the condemnation of the law, and that on account of the work of Christ, i.e., he removes the guilt of sin, or the sinner's actual liability to eternal wrath on account of it. All sins are forgiven freely (Acts 5:31; 13:38; 1 John 1:6-9). The sinner is by this act of grace for ever freed from the guilt and penalty of his sins. This is the peculiar prerogative of God (Ps. 130:4; Mark 2:5). It is offered to all in the gospel. (See [219]JUSTIFICATION.)”
1 John “He who sins is of the devil, for the devil has been sinning from the beginning. To this end the Son of God was revealed, that he might destroy the works of the devil. -- 1 John 3:8”
I John “I John 3:8 (LITV) — The one practicing sin is of the Devil, because the Devil sins from the beginning. For this the Son of God was revealed, that He undo the works of the Devil.”
Easton's Bible Dictionary “Easton's Bible Dictionary: Fall of man — An expression probably borrowed from the Apocryphal Book of Wisdom, to express the fact of the revolt of our first parents from God, and the consequent sin and misery in which they and all their posterity were involved. The history of the Fall is recorded in Gen. 2 and 3. That history is to be literally interpreted. It records facts which underlie the whole system of revealed truth. It is referred to by our Lord and his apostles not only as being true, but as furnishing the ground of all God's subsequent dispensations and dealings with the children of m”
James “James 1:15 (LITV) — Then being conceived, lust brings forth sin. And sin being fully formed brings forth death.”
Torrey's Topical Textbook “Torrey's Topical Textbook: Fall of Man, The — By the disobedience of Adam -- Ge 3:6,11,12; Ro 5:12,15,19. Through temptation of the devil -- Ge 3:1-5; 2Co 11:3; 1Ti 2:14. Man in consequence of Made in the image of Adam. -- Ge 5:3; 1Co 15:48,49. Born in sin. -- Job 15:14; 25:4; Ps 51:5; Isa 48:8; Joh 3:6. A child of wrath. -- Eph 2:3. Evil in heart. -- Ge 6:5; 8:21; Jer 16:12; Mt 15:19. Blinded in heart. -- Eph 4:18. Corrupt and perverse in his ways. -- Ge 6:12; Ps 10:5; Ro 3:12-16. Depraved in mind. -- Ro 8:5-7; Eph 4:17; Col 1:21; Tit 1:15. Without understanding. -- Ps 14:2,3; Ro 3:11; 1:31. ”
Torrey's Topical Textbook “Torrey's Topical Textbook: Sin — Is the transgression of the law -- 1Jo 3:4. Is of the devil -- 1Jo 3:8; Joh 8:44. All unrighteousness is -- 1Jo 5:17. Omission of what we know to be good is -- Jas 4:17. Whatever is not of faith is -- Ro 14:23. The thought of foolishness is -- Pr 24:9. All the imaginations of the unrenewed heart are -- Ge 6:5; 8:21. Described as Coming from the heart. -- Mt 15:19. The fruit of lust. -- Jas 1:15. The sting of death. -- 1Co 15:56. Rebellion against God. -- De 9:7; Jos 1:18. Works of darkness. -- Eph 5:11. Dead works. -- Heb 6:1; 9:14. The abominable thing that Go”
theology (Catholic (Scholastic)) “Aquinas, Summa Theologica, First Part of the Second Part (Prima Secundae), Of Original Sin, As to Its Essence, Art. 2: Article: Whether there are several original sins in one man? I answer that, In one man there is one original sin. Two reasons may be assigned for this. The first is on the part of the cause of original sin. For it has been stated (Question [81], Article [2]), that the first sin alone of our first parent was transmitted to his posterity. Wherefore in one man original sin is one in number; and in all men, it is one in proportion, i.e. in relation to its first principle. The seco”
CCEL (Reformed (Old Princeton)) “Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology, Vol. 2, section 43: the Latin Church on all the questions relating to sin, grace, and predestination. It having come to be generally admitted that original righteousness was a supernatural gift, it was also generally held that the effect of Adam's sin upon himself and upon his posterity was the loss of that righteousness. This was its only subjective effect. The soul, therefore, is left in the state in which it was originally created, and in which it existed, some said a longer, others a shorter, period, or no perceptible period at all, before the receipt of”
Psalms (Protestant academic) “Tyndale House on Psalms 58:3: 58:3 All human beings are born sinners (see 51:5); however, whereas the wicked indulge their sinful nature, the godly fight against it (Rom 7:19-23; Jas 4:1-10).”
CCEL (Reformed) “John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, section 37: a description of original sin; The same thing appears more clearly from the mode of renovation. For the spirit, which is contrasted with the old man, and the flesh, denotes not only the grace by which the sensual or inferior part of the soul is corrected, but includes a complete reformation of all its parts ( Eph. 4:23 ). And, accordingly, Paul enjoins not only that gross appetites be suppressed, but that we be renewed in the spirit of our mind ( Eph. 4:23 ), as he elsewhere tells us to be transformed by the renewing of our mind ( ”
Psalms (Baptist/Reformed) “John Gill on Psalms 106:6: We have sinned with our fathers,.... Sinned in their first father Adam; derived a corrupt nature from their immediate ancestors; sinned after the similitude of their transgressions; sinned after their example, in like manner as they did; guilty of the same gross enormities as they were: though sufficiently warned by the words of the prophets, and by punishments inflicted, they continued their sins, a constant series and course of them, and filled up the measure of their iniquities; they rose up in their stead an increase of sinful men, to augment the fierce anger of ”
Augsburg Confession (Lutheran) “Augsburg Confession (Lutheran, 1530), Article II. Of Original Sin.: Article II. Of Original Sin.”
Schaff ANF/NPNF (Patristic) “NPNF1 Vol 3: Augustine — On the Holy Trinity — CHAP. 46.--IT IS PROBABLE THAT CHILDREN ARE INVOLVED IN THE GUILT NOT ONLY OF THE FIRST PAIR, BUT OF THEIR OWN IMMEDIATE PARENTS.: And it is said, with much appearance of probability, that infants are involved in the guilt of the sins not only of the first pair, but of their own immediate parents. For that divine judgment, "I shall visit the iniquities of the fathers upon the children,"(7) certainly applies to them before they come under the new covenant by regeneration. And it was this new covenant that was prophesied of, when it was said by Ezek”
CCEL (Reformed) “Calvin, Commentary on Genesis, Vol. 1 (Gen 1-23), section 7.20: pronounced in the Scriptures. In the first place, Scripture clearly teaches us that we are born vicious and perverse. The cavil of Pelagius was frivolous, that sin proceeded from Adam by imitation. For David, while still enclosed in his mother’s womb, could not be an imitator of Adam, yet he confesses that he was conceived in sin, ( Psalm 51:5 .) A fuller proof of this matter, and a more ample definition of original sin, may be found in the Institutes; 171 171 Calvin’s Institutes, Book II, chap. 1, 2, 3. yet here, in a single word”
CCEL (Eastern Orthodox) “John of Damascus, An Exact Exposition of the Orthodox Faith, section 105: 9:5 9:5 9:5 9:19 9:21 9:21 10:4 10:4 10:6-9 10:13-21 10:17 11:8 11:25-27 11:28 11:32 11:33-36 11:36 11:36 11:36 12:3 12:13 15:10 15:12 16:25-27 1 Corinthians 1:9 1:10 1:17-25 1:20 1:20-25 1:23 1:23 1:23-24 1:24 1:24 1:24 1:27 1:27 2:2 2:7-8 2:8 2:8 2:8 2:10-11 2:11 2:12 2:12 2:14-15 3:8 3:8 3:16 3:17 3:19 7:2 7:25 7:31 8 8:5 8:6 8:6 8:6 8:6 8:6 8:7 10:1 10:17 10:31 11:2 11:24-26 11:29 11:31-32 12:3 12:3 12:3 12:3 12:4-7 12:4-11 12:5-6 12:5-6 12:8 12:8 12:8-10 12:11 12:12 12:24 13:10 14:32 14:37 15:3-4 15:16-17 15:20 15:2”

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